Reaction Process: Reactome:R-TGU-8953897

Succinic acid

C4H6O4 (118.0266076)

Succinic acid appears as white crystals or shiny white odorless crystalline powder. pH of 0.1 molar solution: 2.7. Very acid taste. (NTP, 1992) Succinic acid is an alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid resulting from the formal oxidation of each of the terminal methyl groups of butane to the corresponding carboxy group. It is an intermediate metabolite in the citric acid cycle. It has a role as a nutraceutical, a radiation protective agent, an anti-ulcer drug, a micronutrient and a fundamental metabolite. It is an alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid and a C4-dicarboxylic acid. It is a conjugate acid of a succinate(1-). A water-soluble, colorless crystal with an acid taste that is used as a chemical intermediate, in medicine, the manufacture of lacquers, and to make perfume esters. It is also used in foods as a sequestrant, buffer, and a neutralizing agent. (Hawleys Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed, p1099; McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed, p1851) Succinic acid is a metabolite found in or produced by Escherichia coli (strain K12, MG1655). Succinic acid is a dicarboxylic acid. The anion, succinate, is a component of the citric acid cycle capable of donating electrons to the electron transfer chain. Succinic acid is created as a byproduct of the fermentation of sugar. It lends to fermented beverages such as wine and beer a common taste that is a combination of saltiness, bitterness and acidity. Succinate is commonly used as a chemical intermediate, in medicine, the manufacture of lacquers, and to make perfume esters. It is also used in foods as a sequestrant, buffer, and a neutralizing agent. Succinate plays a role in the citric acid cycle, an energy-yielding process and is metabolized by succinate dehydrogenase to fumarate. Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) plays an important role in the mitochondria, being both part of the respiratory chain and the Krebs cycle. SDH with a covalently attached FAD prosthetic group, binds enzyme substrates (succinate and fumarate) and physiological regulators (oxaloacetate and ATP). Oxidizing succinate links SDH to the fast-cycling Krebs cycle portion where it participates in the breakdown of acetyl-CoA throughout the whole Krebs cycle. Succinate can readily be imported into the mitochondrial matrix by the n-butylmalonate- (or phenylsuccinate-) sensitive dicarboxylate carrier in exchange with inorganic phosphate or another organic acid, e.g. malate. (A3509) Mutations in the four genes encoding the subunits of succinate dehydrogenase are associated with a wide spectrum of clinical presentations (i.e.: Huntingtons disease. (A3510). Succinate also acts as an oncometabolite. Succinate inhibits 2-oxoglutarate-dependent histone and DNA demethylase enzymes, resulting in epigenetic silencing that affects neuroendocrine differentiation. A water-soluble, colorless crystal with an acid taste that is used as a chemical intermediate, in medicine, the manufacture of lacquers, and to make perfume esters. It is also used in foods as a sequestrant, buffer, and a neutralizing agent. (Hawleys Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed, p1099; McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed, p1851) Succinic acid (succinate) is a dicarboxylic acid. It is an important component of the citric acid or TCA cycle and is capable of donating electrons to the electron transfer chain. Succinate is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to mammals. In eukaryotes, succinate is generated in the mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). Succinate can readily be imported into the mitochondrial matrix by the n-butylmalonate- (or phenylsuccinate-) sensitive dicarboxylate carrier in exchange with inorganic phosphate or another organic acid, e. g. malate (PMID 16143825). Succinate can exit the mitochondrial matrix and function in the cytoplasm as well as the extracellular space. Succinate has multiple biological roles including roles as a metabolic intermediate and roles as a cell signalling molecule. Succinate can alter gene expression patterns, thereby modulating the epigenetic landscape or it can exhibit hormone-like signaling functions (PMID: 26971832). As such, succinate links cellular metabolism, especially ATP formation, to the regulation of cellular function. Succinate can be broken down or metabolized into fumarate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), which is part of the electron transport chain involved in making ATP. Dysregulation of succinate synthesis, and therefore ATP synthesis, can happen in a number of genetic mitochondrial diseases, such as Leigh syndrome, and Melas syndrome. Succinate has been found to be associated with D-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria, which is an inborn error of metabolism. Succinic acid has recently been identified as an oncometabolite or an endogenous, cancer causing metabolite. High levels of this organic acid can be found in tumors or biofluids surrounding tumors. Its oncogenic action appears to due to its ability to inhibit prolyl hydroxylase-containing enzymes. In many tumours, oxygen availability becomes limited (hypoxia) very quickly due to rapid cell proliferation and limited blood vessel growth. The major regulator of the response to hypoxia is the HIF transcription factor (HIF-alpha). Under normal oxygen levels, protein levels of HIF-alpha are very low due to constant degradation, mediated by a series of post-translational modification events catalyzed by the prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing enzymes PHD1, 2 and 3, (also known as EglN2, 1 and 3) that hydroxylate HIF-alpha and lead to its degradation. All three of the PHD enzymes are inhibited by succinate. In humans, urinary succinic acid is produced by Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Enterobacter, Acinetobacter, Proteus mirabilis, Citrobacter frundii, Enterococcus faecalis (PMID: 22292465). Succinic acid is also found in Actinobacillus, Anaerobiospirillum, Mannheimia, Corynebacterium and Basfia (PMID: 22292465; PMID: 18191255; PMID: 26360870). Succinic acid is widely distributed in higher plants and produced by microorganisms. It is found in cheeses and fresh meats. Succinic acid is a flavouring enhancer, pH control agent [DFC]. Succinic acid is also found in yellow wax bean, swamp cabbage, peanut, and abalone. An alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid resulting from the formal oxidation of each of the terminal methyl groups of butane to the corresponding carboxy group. It is an intermediate metabolite in the citric acid cycle. COVID info from PDB, Protein Data Bank Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST. KEIO_ID S004 Succinic acid is a potent and orally active anxiolytic agent. Succinic acid is an intermediate product of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Succinic acid can be used as a precursor of many industrially important chemicals in food, chemical and pharmaceutical industries[1][2]. Succinic acid is a potent and orally active anxiolytic agent. Succinic acid is an intermediate product of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Succinic acid can be used as a precursor of many industrially important chemicals in food, chemical and pharmaceutical industries[1][2].

Adenosine triphosphate

C10H16N5O13P3 (506.9957476)

Adenosine triphosphate, also known as atp or atriphos, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine ribonucleoside triphosphates. Purine ribonucleoside triphosphates are purine ribobucleotides with a triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Adenosine triphosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Adenosine triphosphate can be found in a number of food items such as lichee, alpine sweetvetch, pecan nut, and black mulberry, which makes adenosine triphosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Adenosine triphosphate can be found primarily in blood, cellular cytoplasm, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and saliva, as well as throughout most human tissues. Adenosine triphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, adenosine triphosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis PE(16:0/18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)), carteolol action pathway, phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis PE(20:3(5Z,8Z,11Z)/15:0), and carfentanil action pathway. Adenosine triphosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include lysosomal acid lipase deficiency (wolman disease), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase deficiency 1 (PEPCK1), propionic acidemia, and the oncogenic action of d-2-hydroxyglutarate in hydroxygluaricaciduria. Moreover, adenosine triphosphate is found to be associated with rachialgia, neuroinfection, stroke, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Adenosine triphosphate is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. Adenosine triphosphate is a drug which is used for nutritional supplementation, also for treating dietary shortage or imbalanc. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that participates in many processes. Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. When consumed in metabolic processes, it converts to either the di- or monophosphates, respectively ADP and AMP. Other processes regenerate ATP such that the human body recycles its own body weight equivalent in ATP each day. It is also a precursor to DNA and RNA . ATP is able to store and transport chemical energy within cells. ATP also plays an important role in the synthesis of nucleic acids. ATP can be produced by various cellular processes, most typically in mitochondria by oxidative phosphorylation under the catalytic influence of ATP synthase. The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1 mole. The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 200 to 300 moles of ATP daily. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 2000 to 3000 times during a single day. ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption must closely follow its synthesis (DrugBank). Metabolism of organophosphates occurs principally by oxidation, by hydrolysis via esterases and by reaction with glutathione. Demethylation and glucuronidation may also occur. Oxidation of organophosphorus pesticides may result in moderately toxic products. In general, phosphorothioates are not directly toxic but require oxidative metabolism to the proximal toxin. The glutathione transferase reactions produce products that are, in most cases, of low toxicity. Paraoxonase (PON1) is a key enzyme in the metabolism of organophosphates. PON1 can inactivate some organophosphates through hydrolysis. PON1 hydrolyzes the active metabolites in several organophosphates insecticides as well as, nerve agents such as soman, sarin, and VX. The presence of PON1 polymorphisms causes there to be different enzyme levels and catalytic efficiency of this esterase, which in turn suggests that different individuals may be more susceptible to the toxic effect of organophosphate exposure (T3DB). ATP is an adenosine 5-phosphate in which the 5-phosphate is a triphosphate group. It is involved in the transportation of chemical energy during metabolic pathways. It has a role as a nutraceutical, a micronutrient, a fundamental metabolite and a cofactor. It is an adenosine 5-phosphate and a purine ribonucleoside 5-triphosphate. It is a conjugate acid of an ATP(3-). An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter. Adenosine triphosphate is a metabolite found in or produced by Escherichia coli (strain K12, MG1655). Adenosine-5-triphosphate is a natural product found in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Arabidopsis thaliana, and other organisms with data available. Adenosine Triphosphate is an adenine nucleotide comprised of three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety, found in all living cells. Adenosine triphosphate is involved in energy production for metabolic processes and RNA synthesis. In addition, this substance acts as a neurotransmitter. In cancer studies, adenosine triphosphate is synthesized to examine its use to decrease weight loss and improve muscle strength. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial. (A3367, A3368, A3369, A3370, A3371). Adenosine triphosphate is a metabolite found in or produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial. (PMID: 15490415, 15129319, 14707763, 14696970, 11157473). 5′-ATP. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=56-65-5 (retrieved 2024-07-01) (CAS RN: 56-65-5). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).

Adenosine monophosphate

C10H14N5O7P (347.0630824)

Adenosine monophosphate, also known as adenylic acid or amp, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine ribonucleoside monophosphates. Purine ribonucleoside monophosphates are nucleotides consisting of a purine base linked to a ribose to which one monophosphate group is attached. Adenosine monophosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Adenosine monophosphate can be found in a number of food items such as kiwi, taro, alaska wild rhubarb, and skunk currant, which makes adenosine monophosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Adenosine monophosphate can be found primarily in most biofluids, including blood, feces, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and urine, as well as throughout all human tissues. Adenosine monophosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, adenosine monophosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include josamycin action pathway, methacycline action pathway, nevirapine action pathway, and aspartate metabolism. Adenosine monophosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrullinuria [hhh-syndrome], molybdenum cofactor deficiency, xanthinuria type I, and mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome. Adenosine monophosphate is a drug which is used for nutritional supplementation, also for treating dietary shortage or imbalanc. Adenosine monophosphate, also known as 5-adenylic acid and abbreviated AMP, is a nucleotide that is found in RNA. It is an ester of phosphoric acid with the nucleoside adenosine. AMP consists of the phosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. AMP can be produced during ATP synthesis by the enzyme adenylate kinase. AMP has recently been approved as a Bitter Blocker additive to foodstuffs. When AMP is added to bitter foods or foods with a bitter aftertaste it makes them seem sweeter. This potentially makes lower calorie food products more palatable. [Spectral] AMP (exact mass = 347.06308) and Guanine (exact mass = 151.04941) and 3,4-Dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine (exact mass = 197.06881) and Glutathione disulfide (exact mass = 612.15196) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. [Spectral] AMP (exact mass = 347.06308) and Glutathione disulfide (exact mass = 612.15196) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. [Spectral] AMP (exact mass = 347.06308) and Adenine (exact mass = 135.0545) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. Adenosine monophosphate. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=67583-85-1 (retrieved 2024-07-01) (CAS RN: 61-19-8). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). Adenosine monophosphate is a key cellular metabolite regulating energy homeostasis and signal transduction. Adenosine monophosphate is a key cellular metabolite regulating energy homeostasis and signal transduction. Adenosine monophosphate is a key cellular metabolite regulating energy homeostasis and signal transduction.

Adenosine diphosphate

C10H15N5O10P2 (427.029415)

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), also known as adenosine pyrophosphate (APP), is an important organic compound in metabolism and is essential to the flow of energy in living cells. ADP consists of three important structural components: a sugar backbone attached to adenine and two phosphate groups bonded to the 5 carbon atom of ribose. The diphosphate group of ADP is attached to the 5’ carbon of the sugar backbone, while the adenine attaches to the 1’ carbon. ADP belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside diphosphates. These are purine ribobucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleotide adenine. Adenosine diphosphate is a nucleotide. ADP exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, ADP is involved in d4-gdi signaling pathway. ADP is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. ADP is converted back to ATP by ATP synthases. ADP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. Adenosine diphosphate, abbreviated ADP, is a nucleotide. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleotide adenine. ADP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. 5′-ADP. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=58-64-0 (retrieved 2024-07-01) (CAS RN: 58-64-0). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). Adenosine 5'-diphosphate (Adenosine diphosphate) is a nucleoside diphosphate. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate induces human platelet aggregation and inhibits stimulated adenylate cyclase by an action at P2T-purinoceptors. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate (Adenosine diphosphate) is a nucleoside diphosphate. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate induces human platelet aggregation and inhibits stimulated adenylate cyclase by an action at P2T-purinoceptors.

Oxoglutaric acid

C5H6O5 (146.0215226)

Oxoglutaric acid, also known as alpha-ketoglutarate, alpha-ketoglutaric acid, AKG, or 2-oxoglutaric acid, is classified as a gamma-keto acid or a gamma-keto acid derivative. gamma-Keto acids are organic compounds containing an aldehyde substituted with a keto group on the C4 carbon atom. alpha-Ketoglutarate is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic. alpha-Ketoglutarate is a key molecule in the TCA cycle, playing a fundamental role in determining the overall rate of this important metabolic process (PMID: 26759695). In the TCA cycle, AKG is decarboxylated to succinyl-CoA and carbon dioxide by AKG dehydrogenase, which functions as a key control point of the TCA cycle. Additionally, AKG can be generated from isocitrate by oxidative decarboxylation catalyzed by the enzyme known as isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH). In addition to these routes of production, AKG can be produced from glutamate by oxidative deamination via glutamate dehydrogenase, and as a product of pyridoxal phosphate-dependent transamination reactions (mediated by branched-chain amino acid transaminases) in which glutamate is a common amino donor. AKG is a nitrogen scavenger and a source of glutamate and glutamine that stimulates protein synthesis and inhibits protein degradation in muscles. In particular, AKG can decrease protein catabolism and increase protein synthesis to enhance bone tissue formation in skeletal muscles (PMID: 26759695). Interestingly, enteric feeding of AKG supplements can significantly increase circulating plasma levels of hormones such as insulin, growth hormone, and insulin-like growth factor-1 (PMID: 26759695). It has recently been shown that AKG can extend the lifespan of adult C. elegans by inhibiting ATP synthase and TOR (PMID: 24828042). In combination with molecular oxygen, alpha-ketoglutarate is required for the hydroxylation of proline to hydroxyproline in the production of type I collagen. A recent study has shown that alpha-ketoglutarate promotes TH1 differentiation along with the depletion of glutamine thereby favouring Treg (regulatory T-cell) differentiation (PMID: 26420908). alpha-Ketoglutarate has been found to be associated with fumarase deficiency, 2-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex deficiency, and D-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria, which are all inborn errors of metabolism (PMID: 8338207). Oxoglutaric acid has been found to be a metabolite produced by Corynebacterium and yeast (PMID: 27872963) (YMDB). [Spectral] 2-Oxoglutarate (exact mass = 146.02152) and S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine (exact mass = 384.12159) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. [Spectral] 2-Oxoglutarate (exact mass = 146.02152) and (S)-Malate (exact mass = 134.02152) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. Flavouring ingredient

Aldosterone

C21H28O5 (360.1936638)

Aldosterone is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland to regulate sodium and potassium balance in the blood. Specifically it regulates electrolyte and water balance by increasing the renal retention of sodium and the excretion of potassium. It is synthesized from cholesterol by aldosterone synthase, which is absent in other sections of the adrenal gland. It is the sole endogenous member of the class of mineralocorticoids. Aldosterone increases the permeability of the apical (luminal) membrane of the kidneys collecting ducts to potassium and sodium and activates their basolateral Na+/K+ pumps, stimulating ATP hydrolysis, reabsorbing sodium (Na+) ions and water into the blood, and excreting potassium (K+) ions into the urine. [HMDB] Aldosterone is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland to regulate sodium and potassium balance in the blood. Specifically, it regulates electrolyte and water balance by increasing the renal retention of sodium and the excretion of potassium. It is synthesized from cholesterol by aldosterone synthase, which is absent in other sections of the adrenal gland. It is the sole endogenous member of the class of mineralocorticoids. Aldosterone increases the permeability of the apical (luminal) membrane of the kidneys collecting ducts to potassium and sodium and activates their basolateral Na+/K+ pumps, stimulating ATP hydrolysis, reabsorbing sodium (Na+) ions and water into the blood, and excreting potassium (K+) ions into the urine. H - Systemic hormonal preparations, excl. sex hormones and insulins > H02 - Corticosteroids for systemic use > H02A - Corticosteroids for systemic use, plain > H02AA - Mineralocorticoids CONFIDENCE Reference Standard (Level 1); NaToxAq - Natural Toxins and Drinking Water Quality - From Source to Tap (https://natoxaq.ku.dk) D006730 - Hormones, Hormone Substitutes, and Hormone Antagonists > D006728 - Hormones CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 2819 COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS

Coenzyme A

C21H36N7O16P3S (767.1152046)

Coenzyme A (CoA, CoASH, or HSCoA) is a coenzyme notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidization of fatty acids and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle. It is adapted from beta-mercaptoethylamine, panthothenate, and adenosine triphosphate. It is also a parent compound for other transformation products, including but not limited to, phenylglyoxylyl-CoA, tetracosanoyl-CoA, and 6-hydroxyhex-3-enoyl-CoA. Coenzyme A is synthesized in a five-step process from pantothenate and cysteine. In the first step pantothenate (vitamin B5) is phosphorylated to 4-phosphopantothenate by the enzyme pantothenate kinase (PanK, CoaA, CoaX). In the second step, a cysteine is added to 4-phosphopantothenate by the enzyme phosphopantothenoylcysteine synthetase (PPC-DC, CoaB) to form 4-phospho-N-pantothenoylcysteine (PPC). In the third step, PPC is decarboxylated to 4-phosphopantetheine by phosphopantothenoylcysteine decarboxylase (CoaC). In the fourth step, 4-phosphopantetheine is adenylylated to form dephospho-CoA by the enzyme phosphopantetheine adenylyl transferase (CoaD). Finally, dephospho-CoA is phosphorylated using ATP to coenzyme A by the enzyme dephosphocoenzyme A kinase (CoaE). Since coenzyme A is, in chemical terms, a thiol, it can react with carboxylic acids to form thioesters, thus functioning as an acyl group carrier. CoA assists in transferring fatty acids from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria. A molecule of coenzyme A carrying an acetyl group is also referred to as acetyl-CoA. When it is not attached to an acyl group, it is usually referred to as CoASH or HSCoA. Coenzyme A is also the source of the phosphopantetheine group that is added as a prosthetic group to proteins such as acyl carrier proteins and formyltetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule itself. It is the precursor to HMG CoA which is a vital component in cholesterol and ketone synthesis. Furthermore, it contributes an acetyl group to choline to produce acetylcholine in a reaction catalysed by choline acetyltransferase. Its main task is conveying the carbon atoms within the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production (Wikipedia). Coenzyme A (CoA, CoASH, or HSCoA) is a coenzyme, notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidization of fatty acids, and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle. It is adapted from beta-mercaptoethylamine, panthothenate and adenosine triphosphate. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule itself. It is the precursor to HMG CoA, which is a vital component in cholesterol and ketone synthesis. Furthermore, it contributes an acetyl group to choline to produce acetylcholine, in a reaction catalysed by choline acetyltransferase. Its main task is conveying the carbon atoms within the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production. -- Wikipedia [HMDB]. Coenzyme A is found in many foods, some of which are grape, cowpea, pili nut, and summer savory. Coenzyme A (CoASH) is a ubiquitous and essential cofactor, which is an acyl group carrier and carbonyl-activating group for the citric acid cycle and fatty acid metabolism. Coenzyme A plays a central role in the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle and the metabolism of carboxylic acids, including short- and long-chain fatty acids[1]. Coenzyme A (CoASH) is a ubiquitous and essential cofactor, which is an acyl group carrier and carbonyl-activating group for the citric acid cycle and fatty acid metabolism. Coenzyme A plays a central role in the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle and the metabolism of carboxylic acids, including short- and long-chain fatty acids[1]. Coenzyme A, a ubiquitous essential cofactor, is an acyl group carrier and carbonyl-activating group for the citric acid cycle and fatty acid metabolism. Coenzyme A plays a central role in the metabolism of carboxylic acids, including short- and long-chain fatty acids. Coenzyme A. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=85-61-0 (retrieved 2024-10-17) (CAS RN: 85-61-0). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).

Progesterone

C21H30O2 (314.224568)

The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the corpus luteum and the placenta. Progesterone acts on the uterus, the mammary glands and the brain. It is required in embryo implantation, pregnancy maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for milk production. Progesterone, converted from pregnenolone, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of gonadal steroid hormones and adrenal corticosteroids. Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. Progesterone belongs to a class of hormones called progestagens, and is the major naturally occurring human progestagen. During implantation and gestation, progesterone appears to decrease the maternal immune response to allow for the acceptance of the pregnancy. Progesterone decreases contractility of the uterine smooth muscle. The fetus metabolizes placental progesterone in the production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. A drop in progesterone levels is possibly one step that facilitates the onset of labor. In addition progesterone inhibits lactation during pregnancy. The fall in progesterone levels following delivery is one of the triggers for milk production. Progesterone is found to be associated with pregnene hydroxylation deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism. CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 550; DATASET 20200303_ENTACT_RP_MIX506; DATA_PROCESSING MERGING RMBmix ver. 0.2.7; DATA_PROCESSING PRESCREENING Shinyscreen ver. 0.8.0; ORIGINAL_ACQUISITION_NO 9779; ORIGINAL_PRECURSOR_SCAN_NO 9777 CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 550; DATASET 20200303_ENTACT_RP_MIX506; DATA_PROCESSING MERGING RMBmix ver. 0.2.7; DATA_PROCESSING PRESCREENING Shinyscreen ver. 0.8.0; ORIGINAL_ACQUISITION_NO 9837; ORIGINAL_PRECURSOR_SCAN_NO 9835 CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 550; DATASET 20200303_ENTACT_RP_MIX506; DATA_PROCESSING MERGING RMBmix ver. 0.2.7; DATA_PROCESSING PRESCREENING Shinyscreen ver. 0.8.0; ORIGINAL_ACQUISITION_NO 9731; ORIGINAL_PRECURSOR_SCAN_NO 9729 CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 550; DATASET 20200303_ENTACT_RP_MIX506; DATA_PROCESSING MERGING RMBmix ver. 0.2.7; DATA_PROCESSING PRESCREENING Shinyscreen ver. 0.8.0; ORIGINAL_ACQUISITION_NO 9824; ORIGINAL_PRECURSOR_SCAN_NO 9822 CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 550; DATASET 20200303_ENTACT_RP_MIX506; DATA_PROCESSING MERGING RMBmix ver. 0.2.7; DATA_PROCESSING PRESCREENING Shinyscreen ver. 0.8.0; ORIGINAL_ACQUISITION_NO 9851; ORIGINAL_PRECURSOR_SCAN_NO 9849 CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 550; DATASET 20200303_ENTACT_RP_MIX506; DATA_PROCESSING MERGING RMBmix ver. 0.2.7; DATA_PROCESSING PRESCREENING Shinyscreen ver. 0.8.0; ORIGINAL_ACQUISITION_NO 9793; ORIGINAL_PRECURSOR_SCAN_NO 9791 Progestational hormone secreted by corpus luteum during menstrual cycleand is also found in the gonads and haemolymph of crustaceans, e.g. Artemia, Euphosia, Homarus, Pandalus and Penaeus spp (CCD). G - Genito urinary system and sex hormones > G03 - Sex hormones and modulators of the genital system > G03D - Progestogens > G03DA - Pregnen (4) derivatives D006730 - Hormones, Hormone Substitutes, and Hormone Antagonists > D006728 - Hormones > D011372 - Progestins C147908 - Hormone Therapy Agent > C548 - Therapeutic Hormone > C1636 - Therapeutic Steroid Hormone COVID info from clinicaltrial, clinicaltrials, clinical trial, clinical trials CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 4151 CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 1077 Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS Progesterone is a steroid hormone that regulates the menstrual cycle and is crucial for pregnancy. Progesterone is a steroid hormone that regulates the menstrual cycle and is crucial for pregnancy.

S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH)

C14H20N6O5S (384.12158300000004)

S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine (SAH) is formed by the demethylation of S-adenosyl-L-methionine. S-Adenosylhomocysteine (AdoHcy or SAH) is also the immediate precursor of all of the homocysteine produced in the body. The reaction is catalyzed by S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase and is reversible with the equilibrium favoring formation of SAH. In vivo, the reaction is driven in the direction of homocysteine formation by the action of the enzyme adenosine deaminase which converts the second product of the S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase reaction, adenosine, to inosine. Except for methyl transfer from betaine and from methylcobalamin in the methionine synthase reaction, SAH is the product of all methylation reactions that involve S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) as the methyl donor. Methylation is significant in epigenetic regulation of protein expression via DNA and histone methylation. The inhibition of these SAM-mediated processes by SAH is a proven mechanism for metabolic alteration. Because the conversion of SAH to homocysteine is reversible, with the equilibrium favoring the formation of SAH, increases in plasma homocysteine are accompanied by an elevation of SAH in most cases. Disturbances in the transmethylation pathway indicated by abnormal SAH, SAM, or their ratio have been reported in many neurodegenerative diseases, such as dementia, depression, and Parkinsons disease (PMID:18065573, 17892439). Therefore, when present in sufficiently high levels, S-adenosylhomocysteine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of S-adenosylhomocysteine are associated with S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) hydrolase deficiency and adenosine deaminase deficiency. S-Adenosylhomocysteine forms when there are elevated levels of homocysteine and adenosine. S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine is a potent inhibitor of S-adenosyl-L-methionine-dependent methylation reactions. It is toxic to immature lymphocytes and can lead to immunosuppression (PMID:221926). S-adenosylhomocysteine, also known as adohcy or sah, is a member of the class of compounds known as 5-deoxy-5-thionucleosides. 5-deoxy-5-thionucleosides are 5-deoxyribonucleosides in which the ribose is thio-substituted at the 5position by a S-alkyl group. S-adenosylhomocysteine is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). S-adenosylhomocysteine can be found in a number of food items such as rapini, european plum, rambutan, and pepper (c. pubescens), which makes S-adenosylhomocysteine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. S-adenosylhomocysteine can be found primarily in blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), feces, and urine, as well as throughout most human tissues. S-adenosylhomocysteine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, S-adenosylhomocysteine is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis PC(14:0/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)), phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis PC(22:4(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z)/22:0), phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis PC(20:3(5Z,8Z,11Z)/22:2(13Z,16Z)), and phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis PC(18:3(6Z,9Z,12Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)). S-adenosylhomocysteine is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase deficiency, hawkinsinuria, non ketotic hyperglycinemia, and tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency. Moreover, S-adenosylhomocysteine is found to be associated with neurodegenerative disease and parkinsons disease. S-adenosylhomocysteine is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine (SAH) is an amino acid derivative used in several metabolic pathways in most organisms. It is an intermediate in the synthesis of cysteine and adenosine . [Spectral] S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine (exact mass = 384.12159) and Adenosine (exact mass = 267.09675) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. [Spectral] S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine (exact mass = 384.12159) and Cytidine (exact mass = 243.08552) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST. COVID info from PDB, Protein Data Bank, WikiPathways Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS SAH (S-Adenosylhomocysteine) is an amino acid derivative and a modulartor in several metabolic pathways. It is an intermediate in the synthesis of cysteine and adenosine[1]. SAH is an inhibitor for METTL3-METTL14 heterodimer complex (METTL3-14) with an IC50 of 0.9 μM[2]. SAH (S-Adenosylhomocysteine) is an amino acid derivative and a modulartor in several metabolic pathways. It is an intermediate in the synthesis of cysteine and adenosine[1]. SAH is an inhibitor for METTL3-METTL14 heterodimer complex (METTL3-14) with an IC50 of 0.9 μM[2].

Cortisol

C21H30O5 (362.209313)

Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex and it is involved in the stress response. Its synthetic counterpart hydrocortisone is used, either as an injection or topically, in the treatment of inflammation, allergy, collagen diseases, asthma, adrenocortical deficiency, shock, and some neoplastic conditions. Hydrocortisone is synthesized from pregnenolone and is used as an immunosuppressive drug given by injection in the treatment of severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis and angioedema, in place of prednisolone in patients who need steroid treatment but cannot take oral medication, and peri-operatively in patients on long-term steroid treatment to prevent an Addisonian crisis. Cortisol increases blood pressure, blood sugar levels, may cause infertility in women, and suppresses the immune system. The amount of cortisol present in the serum undergoes diurnal variation, with the highest levels present in the early morning and lower levels in the evening, several hours after the onset of sleep. Cortisol is found to be associated with ACTH deficiency and glucocorticoid deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Cortisol binds to the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor. After binding the receptor, the newly formed receptor-ligand complex translocates itself into the cell nucleus where it binds to many glucocorticoid response elements (GRE) in the promoter region of the target genes. The DNA-bound receptor then interacts with basic transcription factors, causing the increase in expression of specific target genes. The anti-inflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Specifically, glucocorticoids induce lipocortin-1 (annexin-1) synthesis, which then binds to cell membranes and prevents phospholipase A2 from coming into contact with its substrate arachidonic acid. This leads to diminished eicosanoid production. The cyclooxygenase (both COX-1 and COX-2) expression is also suppressed, potentiating the effect. In other words, the two main products of inflammation, prostaglandins and leukotrienes, are inhibited by the action of glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoids also stimulate the escape of lipocortin-1 into the extracellular space, where it binds to the leukocyte membrane receptors and inhibits various inflammatory events: epithelial adhesion, emigration, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, respiratory burst, and the release of various inflammatory mediators (lysosomal enzymes, cytokines, tissue plasminogen activator, chemokines, etc.) from neutrophils, macrophages, and mastocytes. Additionally, the immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding. Cortisol is a steroid hormone, in the glucocorticoid class of hormones and a stress hormone. When used as a medication, it is known as hydrocortisone. It is produced in many animals, mainly by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland.[1] It is produced in other tissues in lower quantities.[2] It is released with a diurnal cycle and its release is increased in response to stress and low blood-glucose concentration.[1] It functions to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis, to suppress the immune system, and to aid in the metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrates.[3] It also decreases bone formation.[4] Many of these functions are carried out by cortisol binding to glucocorticoid or mineralocorticoid receptors inside the cell, which then bind to DNA to affect gene expression.[1][5] Hydrocortisone (Cortisol) is a steroid hormone or glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex[1].

Guanosine diphosphate

C10H15N5O11P2 (443.02433)

Guanosine diphosphate, also known as gdp or 5-diphosphate, guanosine, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine ribonucleoside diphosphates. Purine ribonucleoside diphosphates are purine ribobucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Guanosine diphosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Guanosine diphosphate can be found in a number of food items such as strawberry, onion-family vegetables, walnut, and scarlet bean, which makes guanosine diphosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Guanosine diphosphate can be found primarily in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Guanosine diphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, guanosine diphosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include betahistine h1-antihistamine action, fexofenadine h1-antihistamine action, clocinizine h1-antihistamine action, and bepotastine h1-antihistamine action. Guanosine diphosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency (APRT), canavan disease, gout or kelley-seegmiller syndrome, and pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency. Moreover, guanosine diphosphate is found to be associated with epilepsy, subarachnoid hemorrhage, neuroinfection, and stroke. Guanosine diphosphate, abbreviated GDP, is a nucleoside diphosphate. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleoside guanosine. GDP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase guanine . Guanosine diphosphate, also known as 5-GDP or 5-diphosphate, guanosine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside diphosphates. These are purine ribobucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Guanosine diphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, guanosine diphosphate is involved in intracellular signalling through adenosine receptor A2B and adenosine. Outside of the human body, Guanosine diphosphate has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as devilfish, java plums, green beans, almonds, and orange mints. Guanosine diphosphate is a purine ribonucleoside 5-diphosphate resulting from the formal condensation of the hydroxy group at the 5 position of guanosine with pyrophosphoric acid. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map, PDB, Protein Data Bank Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS

Guanosine triphosphate

C10H16N5O14P3 (522.9906626)

Guanosine-5-triphosphate (GTP) is a purine nucleoside triphosphate. It is one of the building blocks needed for the synthesis of RNA during the transcription process. Its structure is similar to that of the guanosine nucleoside, the only difference being that nucleotides like GTP have phosphates on their ribose sugar. GTP has the guanine nucleobase attached to the 1 carbon of the ribose and it has the triphosphate moiety attached to riboses 5 carbon. GTP is essential to signal transduction, in particular with G-proteins, in second-messenger mechanisms where it is converted to guanosine diphosphate (GDP) through the action of GTPases. Guanosine triphosphate, also known as 5-GTP or H4GTP, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside triphosphates. These are purine ribonucleotides with a triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Thus, a GTP-bound tubulin serves as a cap at the tip of microtubule to protect from depolymerization; and, once the GTP is hydrolyzed, the microtubule begins to depolymerize and shrink rapidly. Guanosine triphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, guanosine triphosphate is involved in intracellular signalling through adenosine receptor A2B and adenosine. Guanosine-5-triphosphate (GTP) is a purine nucleoside triphosphate. Outside of the human body, guanosine triphosphate has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine), coconuts, new zealand spinachs, sweet marjorams, and pepper (capsicum). Cyclic guanosine triphosphate (cGTP) helps cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) activate cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels in the olfactory system. It also has the role of a source of energy or an activator of substrates in metabolic reactions, like that of ATP, but more specific. It is used as a source of energy for protein synthesis and gluconeogenesis. For instance, a GTP molecule is generated by one of the enzymes in the citric acid cycle. GTP is also used as an energy source for the translocation of the ribosome towards the 3 end of the mRNA. During microtubule polymerization, each heterodimer formed by an alpha and a beta tubulin molecule carries two GTP molecules, and the GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP when the tubulin dimers are added to the plus end of the growing microtubule. The importing of these proteins plays an important role in several pathways regulated within the mitochondria organelle, such as converting oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in gluconeogenesis. GTP is involved in energy transfer within the cell. Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is a guanine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. GTP functions as a carrier of phosphates and pyrophosphates involved in channeling chemical energy into specific biosynthetic pathways. GTP activates the signal transducing G proteins which are involved in various cellular processes including proliferation, differentiation, and activation of several intracellular kinase cascades. Proliferation and apoptosis are regulated in part by the hydrolysis of GTP by small GTPases Ras and Rho. Another type of small GTPase, Rab, plays a role in the docking and fusion of vesicles and may also be involved in vesicle formation. In addition to its role in signal transduction, GTP also serves as an energy-rich precursor of mononucleotide units in the enzymatic biosynthesis of DNA and RNA. [HMDB]. Guanosine triphosphate is found in many foods, some of which are oat, star fruit, lingonberry, and linden. COVID info from PDB, Protein Data Bank, WikiPathways Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

C21H30N7O17P3 (745.0911)

NADPH is the reduced form of NADP+, and NADP+ is the oxidized form of NADPH. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) is a coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5-phosphate (NMN) coupled with a pyrophosphate linkage to 5-phosphate adenosine 2,5-bisphosphate. NADP serves as an electron carrier in a number of reactions, being alternately oxidized (NADP+) and reduced (NADPH). NADP is formed through the addition of a phosphate group to the 2 position of the adenosyl nucleotide through an ester linkage (Dorland, 27th ed). This extra phosphate is added by the enzyme NAD+ kinase and removed via NADP+ phosphatase. NADP is also known as TPN (triphosphopyridine nucleotide) and it is an important cofactor used in anabolic reactions in all forms of cellular life. Examples include the Calvin cycle, cholesterol synthesis, fatty acid elongation, and nucleic acid synthesis (Wikipedia). Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. A coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5-phosphate (NMN) coupled by pyrophosphate linkage to the 5-phosphate adenosine 2,5-bisphosphate. It serves as an electron carrier in a number of reactions, being alternately oxidized (NADP+) and reduced (NADPH). (Dorland, 27th ed.) [HMDB]. NADPH is found in many foods, some of which are american pokeweed, rice, ginseng, and ostrich fern. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS

Acetyl-CoA

C23H38N7O17P3S (809.1257688000001)

The main function of coenzyme A is to carry acyl groups (such as the acetyl group) or thioesters. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule itself. It is the precursor to HMG CoA, which is a vital component in cholesterol and ketone synthesis. (wikipedia). acetyl CoA participates in the biosynthesis of fatty acids and sterols, in the oxidation of fatty acids and in the metabolism of many amino acids. It also acts as a biological acetylating agent. The main function of coenzyme A is to carry acyl groups (such as the acetyl group) or thioesters. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule itself. It is the precursor to HMG CoA, which is a vital component in cholesterol and ketone synthesis. (wikipedia)

Glutathione

C10H17N3O6S (307.08380220000004)

Glutathione is a compound synthesized from cysteine, perhaps the most important member of the bodys toxic waste disposal team. Like cysteine, glutathione contains the crucial thiol (-SH) group that makes it an effective antioxidant. There are virtually no living organisms on this planet-animal or plant whose cells dont contain some glutathione. Scientists have speculated that glutathione was essential to the very development of life on earth. glutathione has many roles; in none does it act alone. It is a coenzyme in various enzymatic reactions. The most important of these are redox reactions, in which the thiol grouping on the cysteine portion of cell membranes protects against peroxidation; and conjugation reactions, in which glutathione (especially in the liver) binds with toxic chemicals in order to detoxify them. glutathione is also important in red and white blood cell formation and throughout the immune system. glutathiones clinical uses include the prevention of oxygen toxicity in hyperbaric oxygen therapy, treatment of lead and other heavy metal poisoning, lowering of the toxicity of chemotherapy and radiation in cancer treatments, and reversal of cataracts. (http://www.dcnutrition.com/AminoAcids/) glutathione participates in leukotriene synthesis and is a cofactor for the enzyme glutathione peroxidase. It is also important as a hydrophilic molecule that is added to lipophilic toxins and waste in the liver during biotransformation before they can become part of the bile. glutathione is also needed for the detoxification of methylglyoxal, a toxin produced as a by-product of metabolism. This detoxification reaction is carried out by the glyoxalase system. Glyoxalase I (EC 4.4.1.5) catalyzes the conversion of methylglyoxal and reduced glutathione to S-D-Lactoyl-glutathione. Glyoxalase II (EC 3.1.2.6) catalyzes the hydrolysis of S-D-Lactoyl-glutathione to glutathione and D-lactate. GSH is known as a substrate in both conjugation reactions and reduction reactions, catalyzed by glutathione S-transferase enzymes in cytosol, microsomes, and mitochondria. However, it is also capable of participating in non-enzymatic conjugation with some chemicals, as in the case of n-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI), the reactive cytochrome P450-reactive metabolite formed by acetaminophen, that becomes toxic when GSH is depleted by an overdose (of acetaminophen). glutathione in this capacity binds to NAPQI as a suicide substrate and in the process detoxifies it, taking the place of cellular protein thiol groups which would otherwise be covalently modified; when all GSH has been spent, NAPQI begins to react with the cellular proteins, killing the cells in the process. The preferred treatment for an overdose of this painkiller is the administration (usually in atomized form) of N-acetylcysteine, which is used by cells to replace spent GSSG and renew the usable GSH pool. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/glutathione). Glutathione (GSH) - reduced glutathione - is a tripeptide with a gamma peptide linkage between the amine group of cysteine (which is attached by normal peptide linkage to a glycine) and the carboxyl group of the glutamate side-chain. It is an antioxidant, preventing damage to important cellular components caused by reactive oxygen species such as free radicals and peroxides. [Wikipedia]. Glutathione is found in many foods, some of which are cashew nut, epazote, ucuhuba, and canada blueberry. Glutathione. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=70-18-8 (retrieved 2024-07-15) (CAS RN: 70-18-8). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). L-Glutathione reduced (GSH; γ-L-Glutamyl-L-cysteinyl-glycine) is an endogenous antioxidant and is capable of scavenging oxygen-derived free radicals.

Diguanosine tetraphosphate

C20H28N10O21P4 (868.0380958)

P(1),p(4)-bis(5-guanosyl) tetraphosphate, also known as gp4g or gppppg, is a member of the class of compounds known as (5->5)-dinucleotides (5->5)-dinucleotides are dinucleotides where the two bases are connected via a (5->5)-phosphodiester linkage. P(1),p(4)-bis(5-guanosyl) tetraphosphate is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). P(1),p(4)-bis(5-guanosyl) tetraphosphate can be found in a number of food items such as allium (onion), pasta, rocket salad (sspecies), and vanilla, which makes p(1),p(4)-bis(5-guanosyl) tetraphosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. P(1),p(4)-bis(5-guanosyl) tetraphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, p(1),p(4)-bis(5-guanosyl) tetraphosphate is involved in few metabolic pathways, which include azathioprine action pathway, mercaptopurine action pathway, purine metabolism, and thioguanine action pathway. P(1),p(4)-bis(5-guanosyl) tetraphosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include lesch-nyhan syndrome (LNS), myoadenylate deaminase deficiency, mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome, and xanthine dehydrogenase deficiency (xanthinuria). Diguanosine tetraphosphate is a diguanosine polyphosphate. Diguanosine polyphosphates (GpnGs) are found in human platelets, among a number of dinucleoside polyphosphates, which vary with respect to the number of phosphate groups and the nucleoside moieties; not only diguanosine polyphosphates (GpnG) are found, but also mixed dinucleoside polyphosphates containing one adenosine and one guanosine moiety (ApnG). The vasoactive nucleotides that can be detected in human plasma contain shorter (n=2-3) and longer (n=4-6) polyphosphate chains. GpnGs have not yet been characterized so far with respect to their effects on kidney vasculature. (PMID: 11159696, 11682456, 11115507).

Oxidized glutathione

C20H32N6O12S2 (612.1519552)

Oxidized glutathione, also known as glutathione disulfide or GSSG, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as peptides. Peptides are compounds containing an amide derived from two or more amino carboxylic acid molecules (the same or different) by the formation of a covalent bond from the carbonyl carbon of one to the nitrogen atom of another. In humans, oxidized glutathione is involved in the metabolic disorder called leukotriene C4 synthesis deficiency pathway. Outside of the human body, oxidized glutathione has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as leeks, star anises, mamey sapotes, climbing beans, and common persimmons. Oxidized glutathione is a glutathione dimer formed by a disulfide bond between the cysteine sulfhydryl side chains during the course of being oxidized. Glutathione participates in leukotriene synthesis and is a cofactor for the enzyme glutathione peroxidase. It is also important as a hydrophilic molecule that is added to lipophilic toxins and waste in the liver during biotransformation before they can become part of the bile. Glutathione is also needed for the detoxification of methylglyoxal, a toxin produced as a by-product of metabolism. This detoxification reaction is carried out by the glyoxalase system. Glyoxalase I (EC 4.4.1.5) catalyzes the conversion of methylglyoxal and reduced glutathione into S-D-lactoyl-glutathione. Glyoxalase II (EC 3.1.2.6) catalyzes the hydrolysis of S-D-lactoyl-glutathione into glutathione and D-lactate. Glutathione disulfide (GSSG) - oxidized glutathione - is a disulfide derived from two glutathione molecules. In living cells, glutathione disulfide is reduced into two molecules of glutathione with reducing equivalents from the coenzyme NADPH. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme glutathione reductase. [Wikipedia]. Glutathione disulfide is found in many foods, some of which are jute, millet, malabar plum, and acorn. [Spectral] Glutathione disulfide (exact mass = 612.15196) and 3,4-Dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine (exact mass = 197.06881) and AMP (exact mass = 347.06308) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. [Spectral] Glutathione disulfide (exact mass = 612.15196) and AMP (exact mass = 347.06308) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST. KEIO_ID G008; [MS2] KO008986 C26170 - Protective Agent KEIO_ID G008 Glutathione oxidized (L-Glutathione oxidized) is produced by the oxidation of glutathione. Detoxification of reactive oxygen species is accompanied by production of glutathione oxidized. Glutathione oxidized can be used for the research of sickle cells and erythrocytes[1][2]. Glutathione oxidized (GSSG) is produced by the oxidation of glutathione. Detoxification of reactive oxygen species is accompanied by production of glutathione oxidized. Glutathione oxidized can be used for the research of sickle cells and erythrocytes[1].

Guanosine monophosphate

C10H14N5O8P (363.05799740000003)

Guanosine monophosphate (GMP), also known as 5′-guanidylic acid or guanylic acid (conjugate base guanylate), is a nucleotide that is used as a monomer in RNA. It is an ester of phosphoric acid with the nucleoside guanosine. GMP consists of the phosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase guanine; hence it is a ribonucleoside monophosphate. Guanosine monophosphate is commercially produced by microbial fermentation. Guanosine monophosphate, also known as guanylic acid or 5-GMP, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside monophosphates. These are nucleotides consisting of a purine base linked to a ribose to which one monophosphate group is attached. A guanine nucleotide containing one phosphate group esterified to the sugar moiety and found widely in nature. Guanosine monophosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. Within humans, guanosine monophosphate participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, guanosine triphosphate and guanosine monophosphate can be biosynthesized from diguanosine tetraphosphate through its interaction with the enzyme bis(5-nucleosyl)-tetraphosphatase [asymmetrical]. In addition, guanosine monophosphate can be biosynthesized from guanosine diphosphate; which is mediated by the enzyme ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 5. In humans, guanosine monophosphate is involved in the metabolic disorder called the lesch-nyhan syndrome (lns) pathway. Outside of the human body, guanosine monophosphate has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as common cabbages, tea, winter squash, spearmints, and sugar apples. Guanosine-5-monophosphate, also known as 5-gmp or guanylic acid, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine ribonucleoside monophosphates. Purine ribonucleoside monophosphates are nucleotides consisting of a purine base linked to a ribose to which one monophosphate group is attached. Guanosine-5-monophosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Guanosine-5-monophosphate can be found in a number of food items such as mustard spinach, swiss chard, watercress, and colorado pinyon, which makes guanosine-5-monophosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Guanosine-5-monophosphate can be found primarily in blood and saliva, as well as throughout most human tissues. Guanosine-5-monophosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, guanosine-5-monophosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include clarithromycin action pathway, erythromycin action pathway, minocycline action pathway, and tetracycline action pathway. Guanosine-5-monophosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include gout or kelley-seegmiller syndrome, xanthine dehydrogenase deficiency (xanthinuria), aICA-Ribosiduria, and molybdenum cofactor deficiency. Guanosine monophosphate is known as E number reference E626.[7] In the form of its salts, such as disodium guanylate (E627), dipotassium guanylate (E628) and calcium guanylate (E629), are food additives used as flavor enhancers to provide the umami taste.[7] It is often used in synergy with disodium inosinate; the combination is known as disodium 5′-ribonucleotides. Disodium guanylate is often found in instant noodles, potato chips and snacks, savoury rice, tinned vegetables, cured meats, and packet soup. As it is a fairly expensive additive, it is usually not used independently of glutamic acid or monosodium glutamate (MSG), which also contribute umami. If inosinate and guanylate salts are present in a list of ingredients but MSG does not appear to be, the glutamic acid is likely provided as part of another ingredient, such as a processed soy protein complex (hydrolyzed soy protein), autolyzed yeast, or soy sauce. 5'-Guanylic acid (5'-GMP) is involved in several metabolic disorders, including the AICA-ribosiduria pathway, adenosine deaminase deficiency, adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency (aprt), and the 2-hydroxyglutric aciduria pathway. 5'-Guanylic acid (5'-GMP) is involved in several metabolic disorders, including the AICA-ribosiduria pathway, adenosine deaminase deficiency, adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency (aprt), and the 2-hydroxyglutric aciduria pathway.

NADP+

[C21H29N7O17P3]+ (744.0832754)

[Spectral] NADP+ (exact mass = 743.07545) and NAD+ (exact mass = 663.10912) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS

Water

H2O (18.0105642)

Water is a chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life. It appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities, though it is actually slightly blue in color. It covers 71\\% of Earths surface. Current estimates suggest that there are 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (330 million m3) of it available on Earth, and it exists in many forms. It appears mostly in the oceans (saltwater) and polar ice caps, but it is also present as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, lakes, and sea ice. Water in these bodies perpetually moves through a cycle of evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea. Clean water is essential to human life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply. From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the bodys solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Water is thus essential and central to these metabolic processes. Water is also central to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the suns energy to split off waters hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the suns energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration). Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH-) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7. Stomach acid (HCl) is useful to digestion. However, its corrosive effect on the esophagus during reflux can temporarily be neutralized by ingestion of a base such as aluminum hydroxide to produce the neutral molecules water and the salt aluminum chloride. Human biochemistry that involves enzymes usually performs optimally around a biologically neutral pH of 7.4. (Wikipedia). Water, also known as purified water or dihydrogen oxide, is a member of the class of compounds known as homogeneous other non-metal compounds. Homogeneous other non-metal compounds are inorganic non-metallic compounds in which the largest atom belongs to the class of other nonmetals. Water can be found in a number of food items such as caraway, oxheart cabbage, alaska wild rhubarb, and japanese walnut, which makes water a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Water can be found primarily in most biofluids, including ascites Fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and lymph, as well as throughout all human tissues. Water exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, water is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include cardiolipin biosynthesis CL(20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/18:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/18:2(9Z,12Z)), cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(i-13:0/i-15:0/i-20:0/i-24:0), cardiolipin biosynthesis CL(18:0/18:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)), and cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(a-13:0/i-18:0/i-13:0/i-19:0). Water is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(i-21:0/i-13:0/21:0), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(22:0/20:0/i-20:0), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(a-21:0/i-20:0/i-14:0), and de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(i-21:0/a-17:0/i-12:0). Water is a drug which is used for diluting or dissolving drugs for intravenous, intramuscular or subcutaneous injection, according to instructions of the manufacturer of the drug to be administered [fda label]. Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70\\% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil and natural gas) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances; as such it is widely used in industrial processes, and in cooking and washing. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, and diving .

Oxygen

O2 (31.98983)

Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen and helium and the most abundant element by mass in the Earths crust. Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.9\\% of the volume of air. All major classes of structural molecules in living organisms, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, contain oxygen, as do the major inorganic compounds that comprise animal shells, teeth, and bone. Oxygen in the form of O2 is produced from water by cyanobacteria, algae and plants during photosynthesis and is used in cellular respiration for all living organisms. Green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70\\% of the free oxygen produced on earth and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Oxygen is used in mitochondria to help generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during oxidative phosphorylation. For animals, a constant supply of oxygen is indispensable for cardiac viability and function. To meet this demand, an adult human, at rest, inhales 1.8 to 2.4 grams of oxygen per minute. This amounts to more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year. At a resting pulse rate, the heart consumes approximately 8-15 ml O2/min/100 g tissue. This is significantly more than that consumed by the brain (approximately 3 ml O2/min/100 g tissue) and can increase to more than 70 ml O2/min/100 g myocardial tissue during vigorous exercise. As a general rule, mammalian heart muscle cannot produce enough energy under anaerobic conditions to maintain essential cellular processes; thus, a constant supply of oxygen is indispensable to sustain cardiac function and viability. However, the role of oxygen and oxygen-associated processes in living systems is complex, and they and can be either beneficial or contribute to cardiac dysfunction and death (through reactive oxygen species). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a family of oxygen-derived free radicals that are produced in mammalian cells under normal and pathologic conditions. Many ROS, such as the superoxide anion (O2-)and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), act within blood vessels, altering mechanisms mediating mechanical signal transduction and autoregulation of cerebral blood flow. Reactive oxygen species are believed to be involved in cellular signaling in blood vessels in both normal and pathologic states. The major pathway for the production of ROS is by way of the one-electron reduction of molecular oxygen to form an oxygen radical, the superoxide anion (O2-). Within the vasculature there are several enzymatic sources of O2-, including xanthine oxidase, the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and nitric oxide (NO) synthases. Studies in recent years, however, suggest that the major contributor to O2- levels in vascular cells is the membrane-bound enzyme NADPH-oxidase. Produced O2- can react with other radicals, such as NO, or spontaneously dismutate to produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). In cells, the latter reaction is an important pathway for normal O2- breakdown and is usually catalyzed by the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD). Once formed, H2O2 can undergo various reactions, both enzymatic and nonenzymatic. The antioxidant enzymes catalase and glutathione peroxidase act to limit ROS accumulation within cells by breaking down H2O2 to H2O. Metabolism of H2O2 can also produce other, more damaging ROS. For example, the endogenous enzyme myeloperoxidase uses H2O2 as a substrate to form the highly reactive compound hypochlorous acid. Alternatively, H2O2 can undergo Fenton or Haber-Weiss chemistry, reacting with Fe2+/Fe3+ ions to form toxic hydroxyl radicals (-.OH). (PMID: 17027622, 15765131) [HMDB]. Oxygen is found in many foods, some of which are soy bean, watermelon, sweet basil, and spinach. Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen and helium and the most abundant element by mass in the Earths crust. Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.9\\% of the volume of air. All major classes of structural molecules in living organisms, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, contain oxygen, as do the major inorganic compounds that comprise animal shells, teeth, and bone. Oxygen in the form of O2 is produced from water by cyanobacteria, algae and plants during photosynthesis and is used in cellular respiration for all living organisms. Green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70\\% of the free oxygen produced on earth and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Oxygen is used in mitochondria to help generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during oxidative phosphorylation. For animals, a constant supply of oxygen is indispensable for cardiac viability and function. To meet this demand, an adult human, at rest, inhales 1.8 to 2.4 grams of oxygen per minute. This amounts to more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year. At a resting pulse rate, the heart consumes approximately 8-15 ml O2/min/100 g tissue. This is significantly more than that consumed by the brain (approximately 3 ml O2/min/100 g tissue) and can increase to more than 70 ml O2/min/100 g myocardial tissue during vigorous exercise. As a general rule, mammalian heart muscle cannot produce enough energy under anaerobic conditions to maintain essential cellular processes; thus, a constant supply of oxygen is indispensable to sustain cardiac function and viability. However, the role of oxygen and oxygen-associated processes in living systems is complex, and they and can be either beneficial or contribute to cardiac dysfunction and death (through reactive oxygen species). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a family of oxygen-derived free radicals that are produced in mammalian cells under normal and pathologic conditions. Many ROS, such as the superoxide anion (O2-)and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), act within blood vessels, altering mechanisms mediating mechanical signal transduction and autoregulation of cerebral blood flow. Reactive oxygen species are believed to be involved in cellular signaling in blood vessels in both normal and pathologic states. The major pathway for the production of ROS is by way of the one-electron reduction of molecular oxygen to form an oxygen radical, the superoxide anion (O2-). Within the vasculature there are several enzymatic sources of O2-, including xanthine oxidase, the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and nitric oxide (NO) synthases. Studies in recent years, however, suggest that the major contributor to O2- levels in vascular cells is the membrane-bound enzyme NADPH-oxidase. Produced O2- can react with other radicals, such as NO, or spontaneously dismutate to produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). In cells, the latter reaction is an important pathway for normal O2- breakdown and is usually catalyzed by the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD). Once formed, H2O2 can undergo various reactions, both enzymatic and nonenzymatic. The antioxidant enzymes catalase and glutathione peroxidase act to limit ROS accumulation within cells by breaking down H2O2 to H2O. Metabolism of H2O2 can also produce other, more damaging ROS. For example, the endogenous enzyme myeloperoxidase uses H2O2 as a substrate to form the highly reactive compound hypochlorous acid. Alternatively, H2O2 can undergo Fenton or Haber-Weiss chemistry, reacting with Fe2+/Fe3+ ions to form toxic hydroxyl radicals (-.OH). (PMID: 17027622, 15765131). V - Various > V03 - All other therapeutic products > V03A - All other therapeutic products > V03AN - Medical gases

Carbon dioxide

CO2 (43.98983)

Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals. Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration by all animals, fungi and microorganisms that depend on living and decaying plants for food, either directly or indirectly. It is, therefore, a major component of the carbon cycle. Additionally, carbon dioxide is used by plants during photosynthesis to make sugars which may either be consumed again in respiration or used as the raw material to produce polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose, proteins and the wide variety of other organic compounds required for plant growth and development. When inhaled at concentrations much higher than usual atmospheric levels, it can produce a sour taste in the mouth and a stinging sensation in the nose and throat. These effects result from the gas dissolving in the mucous membranes and saliva, forming a weak solution of carbonic acid. Carbon dioxide is used by the food industry, the oil industry, and the chemical industry. Carbon dioxide is used to produce carbonated soft drinks and soda water. Traditionally, the carbonation in beer and sparkling wine comes about through natural fermentation, but some manufacturers carbonate these drinks artificially. Leavening agent, propellant, aerating agent, preservative. Solvent for supercritical extraction e.g. of caffeine in manufacture of caffeine-free instant coffee. It is used in carbonation of beverages, in the frozen food industry and as a component of controlled atmosphere packaging (CAD) to inhibit bacterial growth. Especies effective against Gram-negative spoilage bacteria, e.g. Pseudomonas V - Various > V03 - All other therapeutic products > V03A - All other therapeutic products > V03AN - Medical gases

Hydrogen peroxide

H2O2 (34.0054792)

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a very pale blue liquid that appears colourless in a dilute solution. H2O2 is slightly more viscous than water and is a weak acid. H2O2 is unstable and slowly decomposes in the presence of light. It has strong oxidizing properties and is, therefore, a powerful bleaching agent that is mostly used for bleaching paper. H2O2 has also found use as a disinfectant and as an oxidizer. H2O2 in the form of carbamide peroxide is widely used for tooth whitening (bleaching), both in professionally- and in self-administered products. H2O2 is a well-documented component of living cells and is a normal metabolite of oxygen in the aerobic metabolism of cells and tissues. A total of 31 human cellular H2O2 generating enzymes has been identified so far (PMID: 25843657). H2O2 plays important roles in host defence and oxidative biosynthetic reactions. At high levels (>100 nM) H2O2 is toxic to most cells due to its ability to non-specifically oxidize proteins, membranes and DNA, leading to general cellular damage and dysfunction. However, at low levels (<10 nM), H2O2 functions as a signalling agent, particularly in higher organisms. In plants, H2O2 plays a role in signalling to cause cell shape changes such as stomatal closure and root growth. As a messenger molecule in vertebrates, H2O2 diffuses through cells and tissues to initiate cell shape changes, to drive vascular remodelling, and to activate cell proliferation and recruitment of immune cells. H2O2 also plays a role in redox sensing, signalling, and redox regulation (PMID: 28110218). This is normally done through molecular redox “switches” such as thiol-containing proteins. The production and decomposition of H2O2 are tightly regulated (PMID: 17434122). In humans, H2O2 can be generated in response to various stimuli, including cytokines and growth factors. H2O2 is degraded by several enzymes including catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD), both of which play important roles in keeping the amount of H2O2 in the body below toxic levels. H2O2 also appears to play a role in vitiligo. Vitiligo is a skin pigment disorder leading to patchy skin colour, especially among dark-skinned individuals. Patients with vitiligo have low catalase levels in their skin, leading to higher levels of H2O2. High levels of H2O2 damage the epidermal melanocytes, leading to a loss of pigment (PMID: 10393521). Accumulating evidence suggests that hydrogen peroxide H2O2 plays an important role in cancer development. Experimental data have shown that cancer cells produce high amounts of H2O2. An increase in the cellular levels of H2O2 has been linked to several key alterations in cancer, including DNA changes, cell proliferation, apoptosis resistance, metastasis, angiogenesis and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) activation (PMID: 17150302, 17335854, 16677071, 16607324, 16514169). H2O2 is found in most cells, tissues, and biofluids. H2O2 levels in the urine can be significantly increased with the consumption of coffee and other polyphenolic-containing beverages (wine, tea) (PMID: 12419961). In particular, roasted coffee has high levels of 1,2,4-benzenetriol which can, on its own, lead to the production of H2O2. Normal levels of urinary H2O2 in non-coffee drinkers or fasted subjects are between 0.5-3 uM/mM creatinine whereas, for those who drink coffee, the levels are between 3-10 uM/mM creatinine (PMID: 12419961). It is thought that H2O2 in urine could act as an antibacterial agent and that H2O2 is involved in the regulation of glomerular function (PMID: 10766414). A - Alimentary tract and metabolism > A01 - Stomatological preparations > A01A - Stomatological preparations > A01AB - Antiinfectives and antiseptics for local oral treatment D - Dermatologicals > D08 - Antiseptics and disinfectants > D08A - Antiseptics and disinfectants S - Sensory organs > S02 - Otologicals > S02A - Antiinfectives > S02AA - Antiinfectives It is used in foods as a bleaching agent, antimicrobial agent and oxidising agent C254 - Anti-Infective Agent > C28394 - Topical Anti-Infective Agent D009676 - Noxae > D016877 - Oxidants > D010545 - Peroxides D000890 - Anti-Infective Agents

Superoxide

O2- (31.98983)

Superoxide is the anionic form O2. It is important as the product of the one-electron reduction of dioxygen (oxygen gas), which occurs widely in nature. With one unpaired electron, the superoxide ion is a free radical. It is also paramagnetic. The biological toxicity of superoxide is due to its capacity to inactivate iron-sulfur cluster containing enzymes (which are critical in a wide variety of metabolic pathways), thereby liberating free iron in the cell, which can undergo fenton-chemistry and generate the highly reactive hydroxyl radical. In its HO2 form, superoxide can also initiate lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. It also reacts with carbonyl compounds and halogenated carbons to create toxic peroxy radicals. As such, superoxide is a main cause of oxidative stress. Highly reactive compounds produced when oxygen is reduced by a single electron. In biological systems, they may be generated during the normal catalytic function of a number of enzymes and during the oxidation of hemoglobin to Methemoglobin. Because superoxide is toxic, nearly all organisms living in the presence of oxygen contain isoforms of the superoxide scavenging enzyme, superoxide dismutase, or SOD. SOD is an extremely efficient enzyme; it catalyzes the neutralization of superoxide nearly as fast as the two can diffuse together spontaneously in solution. Genetic inactivation ("knockout") of SOD produces deleterious phenotypes in organisms ranging from bacteria to mice. The latter species dies around 21 days after birth if the mitochondrial variant of SOD (Mn-SOD) is inactivated, and suffers from multiple pathologies, including reduced lifespan, liver cancer, muscle atrophy, cataracts and female infertility when the cytoplasmic (Cu, Zn -SOD) variant is inactivated. With one unpaired electron, the superoxide ion is a free radical and therefore paramagnetic. In living organisms, superoxide dismutase protects the cell from the deleterious effects of superoxides. Superoxide is the anionic form O2. It is important as the product of the one-electron reduction of dioxygen (oxygen gas), which occurs widely in nature. With one unpaired electron, the superoxide ion is a free radical. It is also paramagnetic. The biological toxicity of superoxide is due to its capacity to inactivate iron-sulfur cluster containing enzymes (which are critical in a wide variety of metabolic pathways), thereby liberating free iron in the cell, which can undergo fenton-chemistry and generate the highly reactive hydroxyl radical. In its HO2 form, superoxide can also initiate lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. It also reacts with carbonyl compounds and halogenated carbons to create toxic peroxy radicals. As such, superoxide is a main cause of oxidative stress.; Highly reactive compounds produced when oxygen is reduced by a single electron. In biological systems, they may be generated during the normal catalytic function of a number of enzymes and during the oxidation of hemoglobin to Methemoglobin. D009676 - Noxae > D016877 - Oxidants > D013481 - Superoxides D009676 - Noxae > D016877 - Oxidants > D010545 - Peroxides

Hydrogen Ion

H+ (1.0078246)

Hydrogen ion, also known as proton or h+, is a member of the class of compounds known as other non-metal hydrides. Other non-metal hydrides are inorganic compounds in which the heaviest atom bonded to a hydrogen atom is belongs to the class of other non-metals. Hydrogen ion can be found in a number of food items such as lowbush blueberry, groundcherry, parsley, and tarragon, which makes hydrogen ion a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Hydrogen ion exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, hydrogen ion is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(i-13:0/a-25:0/a-21:0/i-15:0), cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(a-13:0/a-17:0/i-13:0/a-25:0), cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(i-12:0/i-13:0/a-17:0/a-15:0), and cardiolipin biosynthesis CL(16:1(9Z)/22:5(4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z)/18:1(11Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)). Hydrogen ion is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(20:3(8Z,11Z,14Z)/22:6(4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(18:2(9Z,12Z)/20:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)/18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)), and de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(24:0/20:5(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z)/24:0). A hydrogen ion is created when a hydrogen atom loses or gains an electron. A positively charged hydrogen ion (or proton) can readily combine with other particles and therefore is only seen isolated when it is in a gaseous state or a nearly particle-free space. Due to its extremely high charge density of approximately 2×1010 times that of a sodium ion, the bare hydrogen ion cannot exist freely in solution as it readily hydrates, i.e., bonds quickly. The hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions . Hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions. Under aqueous conditions found in biochemistry, hydrogen ions exist as the hydrated form hydronium, H3O+, but these are often still referred to as hydrogen ions or even protons by biochemists. [Wikipedia])

S-Adenosylmethionine

C15H23N6O5S+ (399.1450568)

S-adenosylmethionine, also known as sam or adomet, is a member of the class of compounds known as 5-deoxy-5-thionucleosides. 5-deoxy-5-thionucleosides are 5-deoxyribonucleosides in which the ribose is thio-substituted at the 5position by a S-alkyl group. S-adenosylmethionine is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). S-adenosylmethionine can be found in a number of food items such as common grape, half-highbush blueberry, jerusalem artichoke, and thistle, which makes S-adenosylmethionine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. S-adenosylmethionine can be found primarily in blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), feces, and urine, as well as throughout most human tissues. S-adenosylmethionine exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. In humans, S-adenosylmethionine is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis PC(22:1(13Z)/22:6(4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)), phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis PC(22:0/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)), phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis PC(24:0/24:0), and phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis PC(20:5(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z)/20:0). S-adenosylmethionine is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency (MTHFRD), 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase deficiency, monoamine oxidase-a deficiency (MAO-A), and aromatic l-aminoacid decarboxylase deficiency. Moreover, S-adenosylmethionine is found to be associated with diabetes mellitus type 2 and neurodegenerative disease. S-adenosylmethionine is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. S-Adenosyl methionine is a common cosubstrate involved in methyl group transfers, transsulfuration, and aminopropylation. Although these anabolic reactions occur throughout the body, most SAM-e is produced and consumed in the liver. More than 40 methyl transfers from SAM-e are known, to various substrates such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and secondary metabolites. It is made from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and methionine by methionine adenosyltransferase (EC 2.5.1.6). SAM was first discovered by Giulio Cantoni in 1952 . Significant first-pass metabolism in the liver. Approximately 50\\\% of S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) is metabolized in the liver. SAMe is metabolized to S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is then metabolized to homocysteine. Homocysteine can either be metabolized to cystathionine and then cysteine or to methionine. The cofactor in the metabolism of homocysteine to cysteine is vitamin B6. Cofactors for the metabolism of homocysteine to methionine are folic acid, vitamin B12 and betaine (T3DB). S-Adenosylmethionine (CAS: 29908-03-0), also known as SAM or AdoMet, is a physiologic methyl radical donor involved in enzymatic transmethylation reactions and present in all living organisms. It possesses anti-inflammatory activity and has been used in the treatment of chronic liver disease (From Merck, 11th ed). S-Adenosylmethionine is a natural substance present in the cells of the body. It plays a crucial biochemical role by donating a one-carbon methyl group in a process called transmethylation. S-Adenosylmethionine, formed from the reaction of L-methionine and adenosine triphosphate catalyzed by the enzyme S-adenosylmethionine synthetase, is the methyl-group donor in the biosynthesis of both DNA and RNA nucleic acids, phospholipids, proteins, epinephrine, melatonin, creatine, and other molecules.

Phosphate Ion

O4P-3 (94.953423)