Reaction Process: PathBank:SMP0002331
Amino Sugar and Nucleotide Sugar Metabolism related metabolites
find 28 related metabolites which is associated with chemical reaction(pathway) Amino Sugar and Nucleotide Sugar Metabolism
-D-Glucose + Adenosine triphosphate ⟶ -D-Glucose 6-phosphate + Adenosine diphosphate
L-Glutamic acid
Glutamic acid (Glu), also known as L-glutamic acid or as glutamate, the name of its anion, is an alpha-amino acid. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). Amino acids are organic compounds that contain amino (‚ÄìNH2) and carboxyl (‚ÄìCOOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid. L-glutamic acid is one of 20 proteinogenic amino acids, i.e., the amino acids used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Glutamic acid is found in all organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals. It is classified as an acidic, charged (at physiological pH), aliphatic amino acid. In humans it is a non-essential amino acid and can be synthesized via alanine or aspartic acid via alpha-ketoglutarate and the action of various transaminases. Glutamate also plays an important role in the bodys disposal of excess or waste nitrogen. Glutamate undergoes deamination, an oxidative reaction catalysed by glutamate dehydrogenase leading to alpha-ketoglutarate. In many respects glutamate is a key molecule in cellular metabolism. Glutamate is the most abundant fast excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system. At chemical synapses, glutamate is stored in vesicles. Nerve impulses trigger release of glutamate from the pre-synaptic cell. In the opposing post-synaptic cell, glutamate receptors, such as the NMDA receptor, bind glutamate and are activated. Because of its role in synaptic plasticity, it is believed that glutamic acid is involved in cognitive functions like learning and memory in the brain. Glutamate transporters are found in neuronal and glial membranes. They rapidly remove glutamate from the extracellular space. In brain injury or disease, they can work in reverse and excess glutamate can accumulate outside cells. This process causes calcium ions to enter cells via NMDA receptor channels, leading to neuronal damage and eventual cell death, and is called excitotoxicity. The mechanisms of cell death include: Damage to mitochondria from excessively high intracellular Ca2+. Glu/Ca2+-mediated promotion of transcription factors for pro-apoptotic genes, or downregulation of transcription factors for anti-apoptotic genes. Excitotoxicity due to glutamate occurs as part of the ischemic cascade and is associated with stroke and diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, lathyrism, and Alzheimers disease. Glutamic acid has been implicated in epileptic seizures. Microinjection of glutamic acid into neurons produces spontaneous depolarization around one second apart, and this firing pattern is similar to what is known as paroxysmal depolarizing shift in epileptic attacks. This change in the resting membrane potential at seizure foci could cause spontaneous opening of voltage activated calcium channels, leading to glutamic acid release and further depolarization (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid). Glutamate was discovered in 1866 when it was extracted from wheat gluten (from where it got its name. Glutamate has an important role as a food additive and food flavoring agent. In 1908, Japanese researcher Kikunae Ikeda identified brown crystals left behind after the evaporation of a large amount of kombu broth (a Japanese soup) as glutamic acid. These crystals, when tasted, reproduced a salty, savory flavor detected in many foods, most especially in seaweed. Professor Ikeda termed this flavor umami. He then patented a method of mass-producing a crystalline salt of glutamic acid, monosodium glutamate. L-glutamic acid is an optically active form of glutamic acid having L-configuration. It has a role as a nutraceutical, a micronutrient, an Escherichia coli metabolite, a mouse metabolite, a ferroptosis inducer and a neurotransmitter. It is a glutamine family amino acid, a proteinogenic amino acid, a glutamic acid and a L-alpha-amino acid. It is a conjugate acid of a L-glutamate(1-). It is an enantiomer of a D-glutamic acid. A peptide that is a homopolymer of glutamic acid. L-Glutamic acid is a metabolite found in or produced by Escherichia coli (strain K12, MG1655). Glutamic acid (Glu), also referred to as glutamate (the anion), is one of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids. It is not among the essential amino acids. Glutamate is a key molecule in cellular metabolism. In humans, dietary proteins are broken down by digestion into amino acids, which serves as metabolic fuel or other functional roles in the body. Glutamate is the most abundant fast excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system. At chemical synapses, glutamate is stored in vesicles. Nerve impulses trigger release of glutamate from the pre-synaptic cell. In the opposing post-synaptic cell, glutamate receptors, such as the NMDA receptor, bind glutamate and are activated. Because of its role in synaptic plasticity, it is believed that glutamic acid is involved in cognitive functions like learning and memory in the brain. Glutamate transporters are found in neuronal and glial membranes. They rapidly remove glutamate from the extracellular space. In brain injury or disease, they can work in reverse and excess glutamate can accumulate outside cells. This process causes calcium ions to enter cells via NMDA receptor channels, leading to neuronal damage and eventual cell death, and is called excitotoxicity. The mechanisms of cell death include: * Damage to mitochondria from excessively high intracellular Ca2+. * Glu/Ca2+-mediated promotion of transcription factors for pro-apoptotic genes, or downregulation of transcription factors for anti-apoptotic genes. Excitotoxicity due to glutamate occurs as part of the ischemic cascade and is associated with stroke and diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, lathyrism, and Alzheimers disease. glutamic acid has been implicated in epileptic seizures. Microinjection of glutamic acid into neurons produces spontaneous depolarization around one second apart, and this firing pattern is similar to what is known as paroxysmal depolarizing shift in epileptic attacks. This change in the resting membrane potential at seizure foci could cause spontaneous opening of voltage activated calcium channels, leading to glutamic acid release and further depolarization. A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. See also: Monosodium Glutamate (active moiety of); Glatiramer Acetate (monomer of); Glatiramer (monomer of) ... View More ... obtained from acid hydrolysis of proteins. Since 1965 the industrial source of glutamic acid for MSG production has been bacterial fermentation of carbohydrate sources such as molasses and corn starch hydrolysate in the presence of a nitrogen source such as ammonium salts or urea. Annual production approx. 350000t worldwide in 1988. Seasoning additive in food manuf. (as Na, K and NH4 salts). Dietary supplement, nutrient Glutamic acid (symbol Glu or E;[4] the anionic form is known as glutamate) is an α-amino acid that is used by almost all living beings in the biosynthesis of proteins. It is a non-essential nutrient for humans, meaning that the human body can synthesize enough for its use. It is also the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system. It serves as the precursor for the synthesis of the inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in GABAergic neurons. Its molecular formula is C 5H 9NO 4. Glutamic acid exists in two optically isomeric forms; the dextrorotatory l-form is usually obtained by hydrolysis of gluten or from the waste waters of beet-sugar manufacture or by fermentation.[5][full citation needed] Its molecular structure could be idealized as HOOC−CH(NH 2)−(CH 2)2−COOH, with two carboxyl groups −COOH and one amino group −NH 2. However, in the solid state and mildly acidic water solutions, the molecule assumes an electrically neutral zwitterion structure −OOC−CH(NH+ 3)−(CH 2)2−COOH. It is encoded by the codons GAA or GAG. The acid can lose one proton from its second carboxyl group to form the conjugate base, the singly-negative anion glutamate −OOC−CH(NH+ 3)−(CH 2)2−COO−. This form of the compound is prevalent in neutral solutions. The glutamate neurotransmitter plays the principal role in neural activation.[6] This anion creates the savory umami flavor of foods and is found in glutamate flavorings such as MSG. In Europe, it is classified as food additive E620. In highly alkaline solutions the doubly negative anion −OOC−CH(NH 2)−(CH 2)2−COO− prevails. The radical corresponding to glutamate is called glutamyl. The one-letter symbol E for glutamate was assigned in alphabetical sequence to D for aspartate, being larger by one methylene –CH2– group.[7] DL-Glutamic acid is the conjugate acid of Glutamic acid, which acts as a fundamental metabolite. Comparing with the second phase of polymorphs α and β L-Glutamic acid, DL-Glutamic acid presents better stability[1]. DL-Glutamic acid is the conjugate acid of Glutamic acid, which acts as a fundamental metabolite. Comparing with the second phase of polymorphs α and β L-Glutamic acid, DL-Glutamic acid presents better stability[1]. L-Glutamic acid acts as an excitatory transmitter and an agonist at all subtypes of glutamate receptors (metabotropic, kainate, NMDA, and AMPA). L-Glutamic acid shows a direct activating effect on the release of DA from dopaminergic terminals. L-Glutamic acid is an excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter that acts as an agonist for all subtypes of glutamate receptors (metabolic rhodophylline, NMDA, and AMPA). L-Glutamic acid has an agonist effect on the release of DA from dopaminergic nerve endings. L-Glutamic acid can be used in the study of neurological diseases[1][2][3][4][5]. L-Glutamic acid acts as an excitatory transmitter and an agonist at all subtypes of glutamate receptors (metabotropic, kainate, NMDA, and AMPA). L-Glutamic acid shows a direct activating effect on the release of DA from dopaminergic terminals.
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate, also known as atp or atriphos, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine ribonucleoside triphosphates. Purine ribonucleoside triphosphates are purine ribobucleotides with a triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Adenosine triphosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Adenosine triphosphate can be found in a number of food items such as lichee, alpine sweetvetch, pecan nut, and black mulberry, which makes adenosine triphosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Adenosine triphosphate can be found primarily in blood, cellular cytoplasm, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and saliva, as well as throughout most human tissues. Adenosine triphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, adenosine triphosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis PE(16:0/18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)), carteolol action pathway, phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis PE(20:3(5Z,8Z,11Z)/15:0), and carfentanil action pathway. Adenosine triphosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include lysosomal acid lipase deficiency (wolman disease), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase deficiency 1 (PEPCK1), propionic acidemia, and the oncogenic action of d-2-hydroxyglutarate in hydroxygluaricaciduria. Moreover, adenosine triphosphate is found to be associated with rachialgia, neuroinfection, stroke, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Adenosine triphosphate is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. Adenosine triphosphate is a drug which is used for nutritional supplementation, also for treating dietary shortage or imbalanc. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that participates in many processes. Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. When consumed in metabolic processes, it converts to either the di- or monophosphates, respectively ADP and AMP. Other processes regenerate ATP such that the human body recycles its own body weight equivalent in ATP each day. It is also a precursor to DNA and RNA . ATP is able to store and transport chemical energy within cells. ATP also plays an important role in the synthesis of nucleic acids. ATP can be produced by various cellular processes, most typically in mitochondria by oxidative phosphorylation under the catalytic influence of ATP synthase. The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1 mole. The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 200 to 300 moles of ATP daily. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 2000 to 3000 times during a single day. ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption must closely follow its synthesis (DrugBank). Metabolism of organophosphates occurs principally by oxidation, by hydrolysis via esterases and by reaction with glutathione. Demethylation and glucuronidation may also occur. Oxidation of organophosphorus pesticides may result in moderately toxic products. In general, phosphorothioates are not directly toxic but require oxidative metabolism to the proximal toxin. The glutathione transferase reactions produce products that are, in most cases, of low toxicity. Paraoxonase (PON1) is a key enzyme in the metabolism of organophosphates. PON1 can inactivate some organophosphates through hydrolysis. PON1 hydrolyzes the active metabolites in several organophosphates insecticides as well as, nerve agents such as soman, sarin, and VX. The presence of PON1 polymorphisms causes there to be different enzyme levels and catalytic efficiency of this esterase, which in turn suggests that different individuals may be more susceptible to the toxic effect of organophosphate exposure (T3DB). ATP is an adenosine 5-phosphate in which the 5-phosphate is a triphosphate group. It is involved in the transportation of chemical energy during metabolic pathways. It has a role as a nutraceutical, a micronutrient, a fundamental metabolite and a cofactor. It is an adenosine 5-phosphate and a purine ribonucleoside 5-triphosphate. It is a conjugate acid of an ATP(3-). An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter. Adenosine triphosphate is a metabolite found in or produced by Escherichia coli (strain K12, MG1655). Adenosine-5-triphosphate is a natural product found in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Arabidopsis thaliana, and other organisms with data available. Adenosine Triphosphate is an adenine nucleotide comprised of three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety, found in all living cells. Adenosine triphosphate is involved in energy production for metabolic processes and RNA synthesis. In addition, this substance acts as a neurotransmitter. In cancer studies, adenosine triphosphate is synthesized to examine its use to decrease weight loss and improve muscle strength. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial. (A3367, A3368, A3369, A3370, A3371). Adenosine triphosphate is a metabolite found in or produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial. (PMID: 15490415, 15129319, 14707763, 14696970, 11157473). 5′-ATP. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=56-65-5 (retrieved 2024-07-01) (CAS RN: 56-65-5). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
Adenosine diphosphate
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), also known as adenosine pyrophosphate (APP), is an important organic compound in metabolism and is essential to the flow of energy in living cells. ADP consists of three important structural components: a sugar backbone attached to adenine and two phosphate groups bonded to the 5 carbon atom of ribose. The diphosphate group of ADP is attached to the 5’ carbon of the sugar backbone, while the adenine attaches to the 1’ carbon. ADP belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside diphosphates. These are purine ribobucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleotide adenine. Adenosine diphosphate is a nucleotide. ADP exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, ADP is involved in d4-gdi signaling pathway. ADP is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. ADP is converted back to ATP by ATP synthases. ADP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. Adenosine diphosphate, abbreviated ADP, is a nucleotide. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleotide adenine. ADP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. 5′-ADP. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=58-64-0 (retrieved 2024-07-01) (CAS RN: 58-64-0). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). Adenosine 5'-diphosphate (Adenosine diphosphate) is a nucleoside diphosphate. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate induces human platelet aggregation and inhibits stimulated adenylate cyclase by an action at P2T-purinoceptors. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate (Adenosine diphosphate) is a nucleoside diphosphate. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate induces human platelet aggregation and inhibits stimulated adenylate cyclase by an action at P2T-purinoceptors.
Coenzyme A
Coenzyme A (CoA, CoASH, or HSCoA) is a coenzyme notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidization of fatty acids and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle. It is adapted from beta-mercaptoethylamine, panthothenate, and adenosine triphosphate. It is also a parent compound for other transformation products, including but not limited to, phenylglyoxylyl-CoA, tetracosanoyl-CoA, and 6-hydroxyhex-3-enoyl-CoA. Coenzyme A is synthesized in a five-step process from pantothenate and cysteine. In the first step pantothenate (vitamin B5) is phosphorylated to 4-phosphopantothenate by the enzyme pantothenate kinase (PanK, CoaA, CoaX). In the second step, a cysteine is added to 4-phosphopantothenate by the enzyme phosphopantothenoylcysteine synthetase (PPC-DC, CoaB) to form 4-phospho-N-pantothenoylcysteine (PPC). In the third step, PPC is decarboxylated to 4-phosphopantetheine by phosphopantothenoylcysteine decarboxylase (CoaC). In the fourth step, 4-phosphopantetheine is adenylylated to form dephospho-CoA by the enzyme phosphopantetheine adenylyl transferase (CoaD). Finally, dephospho-CoA is phosphorylated using ATP to coenzyme A by the enzyme dephosphocoenzyme A kinase (CoaE). Since coenzyme A is, in chemical terms, a thiol, it can react with carboxylic acids to form thioesters, thus functioning as an acyl group carrier. CoA assists in transferring fatty acids from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria. A molecule of coenzyme A carrying an acetyl group is also referred to as acetyl-CoA. When it is not attached to an acyl group, it is usually referred to as CoASH or HSCoA. Coenzyme A is also the source of the phosphopantetheine group that is added as a prosthetic group to proteins such as acyl carrier proteins and formyltetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule itself. It is the precursor to HMG CoA which is a vital component in cholesterol and ketone synthesis. Furthermore, it contributes an acetyl group to choline to produce acetylcholine in a reaction catalysed by choline acetyltransferase. Its main task is conveying the carbon atoms within the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production (Wikipedia). Coenzyme A (CoA, CoASH, or HSCoA) is a coenzyme, notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidization of fatty acids, and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle. It is adapted from beta-mercaptoethylamine, panthothenate and adenosine triphosphate. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule itself. It is the precursor to HMG CoA, which is a vital component in cholesterol and ketone synthesis. Furthermore, it contributes an acetyl group to choline to produce acetylcholine, in a reaction catalysed by choline acetyltransferase. Its main task is conveying the carbon atoms within the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production. -- Wikipedia [HMDB]. Coenzyme A is found in many foods, some of which are grape, cowpea, pili nut, and summer savory. Coenzyme A (CoASH) is a ubiquitous and essential cofactor, which is an acyl group carrier and carbonyl-activating group for the citric acid cycle and fatty acid metabolism. Coenzyme A plays a central role in the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle and the metabolism of carboxylic acids, including short- and long-chain fatty acids[1]. Coenzyme A (CoASH) is a ubiquitous and essential cofactor, which is an acyl group carrier and carbonyl-activating group for the citric acid cycle and fatty acid metabolism. Coenzyme A plays a central role in the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle and the metabolism of carboxylic acids, including short- and long-chain fatty acids[1]. Coenzyme A, a ubiquitous essential cofactor, is an acyl group carrier and carbonyl-activating group for the citric acid cycle and fatty acid metabolism. Coenzyme A plays a central role in the metabolism of carboxylic acids, including short- and long-chain fatty acids. Coenzyme A. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=85-61-0 (retrieved 2024-10-17) (CAS RN: 85-61-0). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
L-Glutamine
Glutamine (Gln), also known as L-glutamine is an alpha-amino acid. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). Amino acids are organic compounds that contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid. Structurally, glutamine is similar to the amino acid glutamic acid. However, instead of having a terminal carboxylic acid, it has an amide. Glutamine is one of 20 proteinogenic amino acids, i.e., the amino acids used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Glutamine is found in all organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals. It is classified as an aliphatic, polar amino acid. In humans glutamine is considered a non-essential amino acid. Enzymatically, glutamine is formed by replacing a side-chain hydroxyl of glutamic acid with an amine functional group. More specifically, glutamine is synthesized by the enzyme glutamine synthetase from glutamate and ammonia. The most relevant glutamine-producing tissue are skeletal muscles, accounting for about 90\\\\\\% of all glutamine synthesized. Glutamine is also released, in small amounts, by the lungs and brain. In human blood, glutamine is the most abundant free amino acid. Dietary sources of glutamine include protein-rich foods such as beef, chicken, fish, dairy products, eggs, beans, beets, cabbage, spinach, carrots, parsley, vegetable juices, wheat, papaya, Brussels sprouts, celery and kale. Glutamine is one of the few amino acids that can directly cross the blood–brain barrier. Glutamine is often used as a supplement in weightlifting, bodybuilding, endurance and other sports, as well as by those who suffer from muscular cramps or pain, particularly elderly people. In 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved L-glutamine oral powder, marketed as Endari, to reduce severe complications of sickle cell disease in people aged five years and older with the disorder. Subjects who were treated with L-glutamine oral powder experienced fewer hospital visits for pain treated with a parenterally administered narcotic or ketorolac. The main use of glutamine within the diet of either group is as a means of replenishing the bodys stores of amino acids that have been used during exercise or everyday activities. Studies which have looked into problems with excessive consumption of glutamine thus far have proved inconclusive. However, normal supplementation is healthy mainly because glutamine is supposed to be supplemented after prolonged periods of exercise (for example, a workout or exercise in which amino acids are required for use) and replenishes amino acid stores. This is one of the main reasons glutamine is recommended during fasting or for people who suffer from physical trauma, immune deficiencies, or cancer. There is a significant body of evidence that links glutamine-enriched diets with positive intestinal effects. These include maintenance of gut barrier function, aiding intestinal cell proliferation and differentiation, as well as generally reducing septic morbidity and the symptoms of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS). The reason for such "cleansing" properties is thought to stem from the fact that the intestinal extraction rate of glutamine is higher than that for other amino acids, and is therefore thought to be the most viable option when attempting to alleviate conditions relating to the gastrointestinal tract. These conditions were discovered after comparing plasma concentration within the gut between glutamine-enriched and non glutamine-enriched diets. However, even though glutamine is thought to have "cleansing" properties and effects, it is unknown to what extent glutamine has clinical benefits, due to the varied concentrations of glutamine in varieties of food. It is also known that glutamine has positive effects in reducing healing time after operations. Hospital waiting times after abdominal s... L-glutamine, also known as L-2-aminoglutaramic acid or levoglutamide, is a member of the class of compounds known as L-alpha-amino acids. L-alpha-amino acids are alpha amino acids which have the L-configuration of the alpha-carbon atom. L-glutamine is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). L-glutamine can be found in a number of food items such as acorn, yautia, ohelo berry, and oregon yampah, which makes L-glutamine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. L-glutamine can be found primarily in most biofluids, including blood, sweat, breast milk, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), as well as throughout most human tissues. L-glutamine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, L-glutamine is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include amino sugar metabolism, the oncogenic action of 2-hydroxyglutarate, mercaptopurine metabolism pathway, and transcription/Translation. L-glutamine is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include the oncogenic action of d-2-hydroxyglutarate in hydroxygluaricaciduria, tay-sachs disease, xanthinuria type I, and adenosine deaminase deficiency. Moreover, L-glutamine is found to be associated with carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase Deficiency, epilepsy, schizophrenia, and alzheimers disease. L-glutamine is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. L-glutamine is a drug which is used for nutritional supplementation, also for treating dietary shortage or imbalance. L-Glutamine (L-Glutamic acid 5-amide) is a non-essential amino acid present abundantly throughout the body and involved in many metabolic processes. L-Glutamine provides a source of carbons for oxidation in some cells[1][2]. L-Glutamine (L-Glutamic acid 5-amide) is a non-essential amino acid present abundantly throughout the body and involved in many metabolic processes. L-Glutamine provides a source of carbons for oxidation in some cells[1][2]. L-Glutamine (L-Glutamic acid 5-amide) is a non-essential amino acid present abundantly throughout the body and involved in many metabolic processes. L-Glutamine provides a source of carbons for oxidation in some cells[1][2].
Guanosine triphosphate
Guanosine-5-triphosphate (GTP) is a purine nucleoside triphosphate. It is one of the building blocks needed for the synthesis of RNA during the transcription process. Its structure is similar to that of the guanosine nucleoside, the only difference being that nucleotides like GTP have phosphates on their ribose sugar. GTP has the guanine nucleobase attached to the 1 carbon of the ribose and it has the triphosphate moiety attached to riboses 5 carbon. GTP is essential to signal transduction, in particular with G-proteins, in second-messenger mechanisms where it is converted to guanosine diphosphate (GDP) through the action of GTPases. Guanosine triphosphate, also known as 5-GTP or H4GTP, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside triphosphates. These are purine ribonucleotides with a triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Thus, a GTP-bound tubulin serves as a cap at the tip of microtubule to protect from depolymerization; and, once the GTP is hydrolyzed, the microtubule begins to depolymerize and shrink rapidly. Guanosine triphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, guanosine triphosphate is involved in intracellular signalling through adenosine receptor A2B and adenosine. Guanosine-5-triphosphate (GTP) is a purine nucleoside triphosphate. Outside of the human body, guanosine triphosphate has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine), coconuts, new zealand spinachs, sweet marjorams, and pepper (capsicum). Cyclic guanosine triphosphate (cGTP) helps cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) activate cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels in the olfactory system. It also has the role of a source of energy or an activator of substrates in metabolic reactions, like that of ATP, but more specific. It is used as a source of energy for protein synthesis and gluconeogenesis. For instance, a GTP molecule is generated by one of the enzymes in the citric acid cycle. GTP is also used as an energy source for the translocation of the ribosome towards the 3 end of the mRNA. During microtubule polymerization, each heterodimer formed by an alpha and a beta tubulin molecule carries two GTP molecules, and the GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP when the tubulin dimers are added to the plus end of the growing microtubule. The importing of these proteins plays an important role in several pathways regulated within the mitochondria organelle, such as converting oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in gluconeogenesis. GTP is involved in energy transfer within the cell. Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is a guanine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. GTP functions as a carrier of phosphates and pyrophosphates involved in channeling chemical energy into specific biosynthetic pathways. GTP activates the signal transducing G proteins which are involved in various cellular processes including proliferation, differentiation, and activation of several intracellular kinase cascades. Proliferation and apoptosis are regulated in part by the hydrolysis of GTP by small GTPases Ras and Rho. Another type of small GTPase, Rab, plays a role in the docking and fusion of vesicles and may also be involved in vesicle formation. In addition to its role in signal transduction, GTP also serves as an energy-rich precursor of mononucleotide units in the enzymatic biosynthesis of DNA and RNA. [HMDB]. Guanosine triphosphate is found in many foods, some of which are oat, star fruit, lingonberry, and linden. COVID info from PDB, Protein Data Bank, WikiPathways Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS
α-D-Glucose-1-phosphate
Glucose 1-phosphate (also called cori ester) is a glucose molecule with a phosphate group on the 1-carbon. It can exist in either the α- or β-anomeric form. Glucose 1-phosphate belongs to the class of organic compounds known as monosaccharide phosphates. These are monosaccharides comprising a phosphated group linked to the carbohydrate unit. Glucose 1-phosphate is the direct product of the reaction in which glycogen phosphorylase cleaves off a molecule of glucose from a greater glycogen structure. It cannot travel down many metabolic pathways and must be interconverted by the enzyme phosphoglucomutase in order to become glucose 6-phosphate. Free glucose 1-phosphate can also react with UTP to form UDP-glucose. It can then return to the greater glycogen structure via glycogen synthase. *Found widely in both plants and animals. A precursor of starch in plants and of glycogen in animals. [CCD] Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map KEIO_ID G020 Corona-virus KEIO_ID G115 Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS
Guanosine diphosphate mannose
Guanosine diphosphate mannose, also known as gdp-D-mannose or guanosine pyrophosphoric acid mannose, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine nucleotide sugars. Purine nucleotide sugars are purine nucleotides bound to a saccharide derivative through the terminal phosphate group. Guanosine diphosphate mannose is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Guanosine diphosphate mannose can be found in a number of food items such as sorrel, common persimmon, citrus, and butternut, which makes guanosine diphosphate mannose a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Guanosine diphosphate mannose exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, guanosine diphosphate mannose is involved in a couple of metabolic pathways, which include fructose and mannose degradation and fructose intolerance, hereditary. Guanosine diphosphate mannose is also involved in fructosuria, which is a metabolic disorder. Guanosine diphosphate mannose or GDP-mannose is a nucleotide sugar that is a substrate for glycosyltransferase reactions in metabolism. This compound is a substrate for enzymes called mannosyltransferases . GDP-mannose is a nucleoside diphosphate sugar that is important in the production of fucosylated oligosaccharides. In particular, GDP-mannose is converted to GDP-fucose, which is the fucose donor in the construction of all mammalian fucosylated glycans. GDP-mannose is transformed to GDP-fucose via three enzymatic reactions carried out by two proteins, GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase (GMD) and a second enzyme, GDP-keto-6-deoxymannose 3,5-epimerase, 4-reductase. GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.47) catalyzes the chemical reaction: GDP-mannose <--> GDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-mannose + H2O. The epimerase converts the GDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-D-mannose to GDP-fucose (PMID: 12651883). GDP-mannose is also synthesized from mannose 1-phosphate via the enzyme ATP-mannose-1-phosphate-guanyltransferase and GTP. Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST.
UDP-α-D-N-Acetylglucosamine disodium
Uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine (uridine 5-diphosphate-GlcNAc, or UDP-Glc-NAc) is an acetylated aminosugar nucleotide. UDP-GlcNAc is the donor substrate for modification of nucleocytoplasmic proteins at serine and threonine residues with N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc). Nutrient sensing in mammals is done through the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HSP), which produces uridine 5-diphospho-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-Glc-NAc) as its end product. Mammals respond to nutrient excess by activating O-GlcNAcylation (addition of O-linked N-acetylglucosamine). O-GlcNAc addition (and removal) is key to histone remodeling, transcription, proliferation, apoptosis, and proteasomal degradation. This nutrient-responsive signaling pathway also modulates important cellular pathways, including the insulin signaling cascade in. Alterations in O-GlcNAc metabolism are associated with various human diseases including diabetes mellitus and neurodegeneration. (PMID: 16317114) Due to the chemical makeup of UDP-GlcNAc, it is well positioned to serve as a glucose sensor in that it is a high-energy compound that requires and/or responds to glucose, amino acid, fatty acid and nucleotide metabolism for synthesis. Elevated levels of O-GlcNAc have an effect on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. (PMID: 12678487). Uridine 5-diphosphate-GlcNAc (UDP-Glc-NAc )respond to nutrient excess to activate O-GlcNAcylation (addition of O-linked N-acetylglucosamine) in the hexosamine signaling pathway (HSP). O-GlcNAc addition (and removal) is key to histone remodeling, transcription, proliferation, apoptosis, and proteasomal degradation. This nutrient-responsive signaling pathway also modulates important cellular pathways, including the insulin signaling cascade in. Alterations in O-GlcNAc metabolism are associated with various human diseases including diabetes mellitus and neurodegeneration. (PMID: 16317114) Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST.
Acetyl-CoA
The main function of coenzyme A is to carry acyl groups (such as the acetyl group) or thioesters. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule itself. It is the precursor to HMG CoA, which is a vital component in cholesterol and ketone synthesis. (wikipedia). acetyl CoA participates in the biosynthesis of fatty acids and sterols, in the oxidation of fatty acids and in the metabolism of many amino acids. It also acts as a biological acetylating agent. The main function of coenzyme A is to carry acyl groups (such as the acetyl group) or thioesters. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule itself. It is the precursor to HMG CoA, which is a vital component in cholesterol and ketone synthesis. (wikipedia)
Glucosamine 6-phosphate
Glucosamine 6-phosphate (CAS: 3616-42-0) is normally produced in endothelial cells via de novo glucosamine synthesis by the enzyme fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase and the modulation of this pathway by hyperglycemia and glutamine. Glutamine-fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase (GFAT) catalyzes the first committed step in the pathway for biosynthesis of hexosamines in mammals.It is a member of the N-terminal nucleophile class of amidotransferases, GFAT transfers the amino group from the L-glutamine amide to D-fructose 6-phosphate, producing glutamic acid and glucosamine 6-phosphate. As glucosamine inhibits endothelial nitric oxide synthesis it has important implications for impaired endothelium-dependent relaxation and vascular dysfunction in diabetes mellitus (PMID:11270676, 11842094). Glucosamine 6-phosphate is normally produced in endothelial cells via the de novo glucosamine synthesis by the enzyme fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase and the modulation of this pathway by hyperglycemia and glutamine. glutamine-fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase (GFAT) catalyzes the first committed step in the pathway for biosynthesis of hexosamines in mammals. A member of the N-terminal nucleophile class of amidotransferases, GFAT transfers the amino group from the L-glutamine amide to D-fructose 6-phosphate, producing glutamic acid and glucosamine 6-phosphate. As glucosamine inhibits endothelial nitric oxide synthesis it has important implications for impaired endothelium-dependent relaxation and vascular dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. (PMID 11270676, 11842094) [HMDB] Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST. KEIO_ID G021; [MS2] KO008968 KEIO_ID G021
N-Acetyl-glucosamine 1-phosphate
N-Acetyl-glucosamine 1-phosphate is an intermediate in aminosugar metabolism. It is a substrate for the enzymes phosphoglucomutase 3 [EC:5.4.2.2 and EC:5.4.2.3] and UDP-N-acteylglucosamine pyrophosphorylase 1 [EC:2.7.7.23] (KEGG). It is involved in UDP-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine biosynthesis and UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine biosynthesis (BioCyc). N-Acetyl-glucosamine 1-phosphate is an intermeiate in the Aminosugars metabolism, a substrate for the enzymes phosphoglucomutase 3 [EC:5.4.2.2 5.4.2.3] and UDP-N-acteylglucosamine pyrophosphorylase 1 [EC:2.7.7.23] (KEGG), in UDP-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine biosynthesis and UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine biosynthesis (BioCyc) [HMDB] COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS
N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-Phosphate
N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-Phosphate is an intermediate in the metabolism of Aminosugars. It is a substrate for Glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase. [HMDB] N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 6-Phosphate is an intermediate in the metabolism of Aminosugars. It is a substrate for Glucosamine 6-phosphate N-acetyltransferase. KEIO_ID A144
Uridine triphosphate
Uridine 5-triphosphate, also known as utp or uridine triphosphoric acid, is a member of the class of compounds known as pyrimidine ribonucleoside triphosphates. Pyrimidine ribonucleoside triphosphates are pyrimidine ribobucleotides with triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Uridine 5-triphosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Uridine 5-triphosphate can be found in a number of food items such as persian lime, nectarine, chinese water chestnut, and soft-necked garlic, which makes uridine 5-triphosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Uridine 5-triphosphate can be found primarily in saliva. Uridine 5-triphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, uridine 5-triphosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include josamycin action pathway, clomocycline action pathway, chloramphenicol action pathway, and amikacin action pathway. Uridine 5-triphosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include GLUT-1 deficiency syndrome, glycogenosis, type VI. hers disease, MNGIE (mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalopathy), and galactosemia II (GALK). Uridine-5-triphosphate (UTP) is a pyrimidine nucleoside triphosphate, consisting of the organic base uracil linked to the 1 carbon of the ribose sugar, and esterified with tri-phosphoric acid at the 5 position. Its main role is as substrate for the synthesis of RNA during transcription . Uridine triphosphate, also known as 5-UTP or UTP, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrimidine ribonucleoside triphosphates. These are pyrimidine ribobucleotides with triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. More specifically, UTP is a pyrimidine nucleoside triphosphate, consisting of the organic base uracil linked to the 1′ carbon of the ribose sugar, and esterified with tri-phosphoric acid at the 5′ position. Uridine triphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. The main role of UTP is as substrate for the synthesis of RNA during transcription. UTP is the precursor for the production of CTP via the enzyme known as CTP Synthetase. UTP can be biosynthesized from UDP by the enzyme known as nucleoside diphosphate kinase by using phosphate group from ATP. UTP also has the role of a source of energy or an activator of substrates in a variety of metabolic reactions. For instance UTP can be used to activate Glucose-1-phosphate, leading to the formation of UDP-glucose and inorganic phosphate. The resulting UDP-glucose can be used in the synthesis of glycogen. UTP is also used in the metabolism of galactose, where the activated form of galactose, called UDP-galactose can be converted to UDP-glucose. UDP-glucuronate, another product of UTP reacting with glucuronic acid, is a sugar used in the creation of polysaccharides and is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of ascorbic acid (except in primates and guinea pigs). COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS
D-Glucose
Glucose is a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms and an aldehyde group. It is referred to as an aldohexose. The glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) and ring (cyclic) form, the latter being the result of an intramolecular reaction between the aldehyde C atom and the C-5 hydroxyl group to form an intramolecular hemiacetal. In aqueous solution, both forms are in equilibrium and at pH 7 the cyclic one is predominant. Glucose is a primary source of energy for all living organisms. It is a fundamental metabolite found in all organisms, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. Most of the world’s glucose is made by plants and algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, where it is used to make cellulose (and other polymeric forms of glucose called polysaccharides) that stabilize plant cell walls. Glucose is also found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. In animals, glucose can be generated from the breakdown of glycogen in a process known as glycogenolysis. Glucose can also be synthesized de novo in animals. In particular it can be synthesized in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a process known as gluconeogenesis. Humans also consume large amounts of glucose as part of their regular diet. Ingested glucose initially binds to the receptor for sweet taste on the tongue in humans. This complex of the proteins T1R2 and T1R3 makes it possible to identify glucose-containing food sources. Glucose in the body mainly comes from food - about 300 g per day for the average adult. In humans, the breakdown of glucose-containing polysaccharides happens partly during chewing by means of the enzyme known as amylase, which is contained in saliva, as well as by other enzymes such as maltase, lactase and sucrase on the brush border of the small intestine. The blood sugar content of a healthy person in the short-time fasting state, e.g. after overnight fasting, is about 70 to 100 mg/dL of blood (4 to 5.5 mM). In blood plasma, the measured values are about 10–15\\\\% higher. Dysregulated metabolism of glucose can lead to a number of diseases including diabetes. Diabetes is a metabolic disorder where the body is unable to regulate levels of glucose in the blood either because of a lack of insulin in the body or the failure, by cells in the body, to respond properly to insulin. Each of these situations can be caused by persistently high elevations of blood glucose levels, through pancreatic burnout and insulin resistance. A glucoside is a glycoside that is derived from glucose. Glucosides are common in plants, but rare in animals. Glucose is produced when a glucoside is hydrolysed by purely chemical means, or decomposed by fermentation or enzymes. COVID info from WikiPathways Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS alpha-D-glucose is an endogenous metabolite. alpha-D-glucose is an endogenous metabolite.
Glucose
D-Galactose (CAS: 59-23-4) is an aldohexose that occurs naturally in the D-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. D-Galactose is an energy-providing nutrient and also a necessary basic substrate for the biosynthesis of many macromolecules in the body. Metabolic pathways for D-galactose are important not only for the provision of these pathways but also for the prevention of D-galactose metabolite accumulation. The main source of D-galactose is lactose in the milk of mammals, but it can also be found in some fruits and vegetables. Utilization of D-galactose in all living cells is initiated by the phosphorylation of the hexose by the enzyme galactokinase (E.C. 2.7.1.6) (GALK) to form D-galactose-1-phosphate. In the presence of D-galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (E.C. 2.7.7.12) (GALT) D-galactose-1-phosphate is exchanged with glucose-1-phosphate in UDP-glucose to form UDP-galactose. Glucose-1-phosphate will then enter the glycolytic pathway for energy production. Deficiency of the enzyme GALT in galactosemic patients leads to the accumulation of D-galactose-1-phosphate. Classic galactosemia, a term that denotes the presence of D-galactose in the blood, is the rare inborn error of D-galactose metabolism, diagnosed by the deficiency of the second enzyme of the D-galactose assimilation pathway, GALT, which, in turn, is caused by mutations at the GALT gene (PMID: 15256214, 11020650, 10408771). Galactose in the urine is a biomarker for the consumption of milk. Alpha-D-Pyranose-form of the compound Galactose [CCD]. alpha-D-Galactose is found in many foods, some of which are kelp, fig, spelt, and rape. Galactose. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=59-23-4 (retrieved 2024-07-16) (CAS RN: 59-23-4). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
Uridine diphosphategalactose
Uridine diphosphategalactose (UDPgal) is a nucleoside diphosphate sugar which can be epimerized into UDPglucose for entry into the mainstream of carbohydrate metabolism. UDPgal is a pivotal compound in the metabolism of galactose. UDPgal is a product of the galactose-l-phosphate uridyl transferase (EC 2.7.7.10) reaction but may also be made from Glucose-l-P, involving uridine diphosphate galactose-4-epimerase (EC 5.1.3.2). UDPgal is the necessary galactosyl donor of galactose in the metabolism to incorporate it into complex oligosaccharides, glycoproteins and glycolipids (galactosides). Defective galactosylation of complex glycoconjugates exists in tissues from galactosemic patients. There is a tendency for galactosemic red cell UDPgal to be in the low normal range with a high uridine diphosphate glucose to UDP-gal ratio. This may reflect an inability of red cell UDPgal-4-epimerase to maintain a normal ratio and consequently higher levels of UDPgal. In the more complex white blood cells and cultured fibroblasts, the UDPgal content and the uridine diphosphate glucose to UDPgal ratio of galactosemics are normal. Therefore, defective galactosylation observed in galactosemic fibroblasts must result from a defect in the transfer of galactose from UDPgal to these moieties. (PMID: 2122114, 7671968) [HMDB] Uridine diphosphategalactose (UDPgal) is a nucleoside diphosphate sugar which can be epimerized into UDPglucose for entry into the mainstream of carbohydrate metabolism. UDPgal is a pivotal compound in the metabolism of galactose. UDPgal is a product of the galactose-l-phosphate uridyl transferase (EC 2.7.7.10) reaction but may also be made from Glucose-l-P, involving uridine diphosphate galactose-4-epimerase (EC 5.1.3.2). UDPgal is the necessary galactosyl donor of galactose in the metabolism to incorporate it into complex oligosaccharides, glycoproteins and glycolipids (galactosides). Defective galactosylation of complex glycoconjugates exists in tissues from galactosemic patients. There is a tendency for galactosemic red cell UDPgal to be in the low normal range with a high uridine diphosphate glucose to UDP-gal ratio. This may reflect an inability of red cell UDPgal-4-epimerase to maintain a normal ratio and consequently higher levels of UDPgal. In the more complex white blood cells and cultured fibroblasts, the UDPgal content and the uridine diphosphate glucose to UDPgal ratio of galactosemics are normal. Therefore, defective galactosylation observed in galactosemic fibroblasts must result from a defect in the transfer of galactose from UDPgal to these moieties. (PMID: 2122114, 7671968). Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS
Galactose 1-phosphate
Galactose 1-phosphate, also known as D-Galactose-1-phosphate or alpha-D-gal-1-P, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as monosaccharide phosphates. These are monosaccharides comprising a phosphate group linked to the carbohydrate unit. Galactose-1-phosphate is an intermediate in the interconversion of glucose and uridine diphosphate galactose. Galactose 1-phosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. Within humans, galactose 1-phosphate participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, uridine diphosphate glucose and galactose 1-phosphate can be biosynthesized from uridine diphosphategalactose and glucose 1-phosphate; which is mediated by the enzyme galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (GALT). In addition, galactose 1-phosphate can be biosynthesized from D-galactose through the action of the enzyme galactokinase. The improper metabolism of galactose-1-phosphate is a characteristic of a condition known as galactosemia (PMID: 7671964). Type I galactosemia is a genetic disorder that is caused by the impairment of galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (EC 2.7.7.12). Evidence suggests that misfolding of the galactose 1-phosphate uridylyltransferase enzyme is the underlying cause of type I galactosemia (PMID: 23583749). Outside of the human body, galactose 1-phosphate has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as gooseberries, anises, turmerics, caraway, and cumins. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Occurs in liver, milk, and yeasts Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST.
D-Fructose
Fructose, or levulose, is a levorotatory monosaccharide and an isomer of glucose (C6H12O6). Pure fructose has a sweet taste similar to cane sugar, but with a "fruity" aroma. Pure, dry fructose is a sweet, white, odorless, crystalline solid, and is the most water-soluble of all the sugars. Although fructose is a hexose (6-carbon sugar), it generally exists as a 5-member hemiketal ring (a furanose). This structure is responsible for the long metabolic pathway and high reactivity compared to glucose. Fructose is a reducing sugar, as are all monosaccharides. Fructose is found in many foods including honey, tree fruits, berries, melons, and some root vegetables, such as beets, sweet potatoes, parsnips, and onions. Commercially, fructose is derived from sugar cane, sugar beets, and maize. Fructose is also derived from the digestion of sucrose, a disaccharide consisting of glucose and fructose that is broken down by enzymes during digestion. Fructose is the sweetest naturally occurring sugar, estimated to be twice as sweet as sucrose. It is used as a preservative and an intravenous infusion in parenteral feeding. Excessive consumption of fructose (especially from sugar-sweetened beverages) may contribute to insulin resistance, obesity, elevated LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, leading to metabolic syndrome (PMID: 26429086). Fructose exists in foods either as a monosaccharide (free fructose) or as a unit of a disaccharide (sucrose). Free fructose is absorbed directly by the intestine. When fructose is consumed in the form of sucrose, it is digested (broken down) and then absorbed as free fructose. As sucrose comes into contact with the membrane of the small intestine, the enzyme sucrase catalyzes the cleavage of sucrose to yield one glucose unit and one fructose unit, which are then each absorbed. After absorption, it enters the hepatic portal vein and is directed toward the liver. fructose absorption occurs on the mucosal membrane via facilitated transport involving GLUT5 transport proteins. Since the concentration of fructose is higher in the lumen, fructose is able to flow down a concentration gradient into the enterocytes, assisted by transport proteins. Fructose may be transported out of the enterocyte across the basolateral membrane by either GLUT2 or GLUT5, although the GLUT2 transporter has a greater capacity for transporting fructose, and, therefore, the majority of fructose is transported out of the enterocyte through GLUT2. The catabolism of fructose is sometimes referred to as fructolysis. In fructolysis, the enzyme fructokinase produces fructose 1-phosphate, which is split by aldolase B to produce the trioses dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde. Unlike glycolysis, in fructolysis the triose glyceraldehyde lacks a phosphate group. A third enzyme, triokinase, is therefore required to phosphorylate glyceraldehyde, producing glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The resulting trioses can enter the gluconeogenic pathway for glucose or glycogen synthesis, or be further catabolized through the lower glycolytic pathway to pyruvate. Fructose metabolism leads to significant increases of plasma uric acid levels (PMID: 28420204). In fructolysis, fructose 1-phosphate accumulates, and intracellular phosphate decreases. This decrease stimulates AMP deaminase (AMPD), which catalyzes the degradation of AMP to inosine monophosphate, increasing the rate of purine degradation (PMID: 28420204). The purine degradation produces uric acid and generates mitochondrial oxidants. Mitochondrial oxidative stress then induces aconitase inhibition in the Krebs cycle, with accumulation of citrate and stimulation of ATP citrate lyase and fatty acid synthase (PMID: 28420204). The result is de novo lipogenesis and hepatic fat accumulation. Physiologically, the increase in intracellular uric acid is followed by an acute rise in circulating levels of uric acid, which is likely due to its release from the liver. Fructose also stimulates uric acid synt... β-d-fructofuranose, also known as fructose or beta-levulose, is a member of the class of compounds known as C-glycosyl compounds. C-glycosyl compounds are glycoside in which a sugar group is bonded through one carbon to another group via a C-glycosidic bond. β-d-fructofuranose is very soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). β-d-fructofuranose can be found in a number of food items such as yardlong bean, red huckleberry, towel gourd, and burdock, which makes β-d-fructofuranose a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. β-d-fructofuranose can be found primarily in most biofluids, including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), feces, urine, and saliva, as well as in human liver, prostate and sperm tissues. β-d-fructofuranose exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, β-d-fructofuranose is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include amino sugar metabolism, fructose intolerance, hereditary, starch and sucrose metabolism, and fructose and mannose degradation. β-d-fructofuranose is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include glycogen synthetase deficiency, salla disease/infantile sialic acid storage disease, mucopolysaccharidosis VI. sly syndrome, and galactosemia. Moreover, β-d-fructofuranose is found to be associated with diabetes mellitus type 2. β-d-fructofuranose is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. Acute consumption of fructose or high fructose corn syrup is essentially non-toxic. Chronic, excess fructose consumption has been shown to be a cause (or indirect cause) of gout, insulin resistance, hypertension, obesity, fatty liver disease, elevated LDL cholesterol and elevated triglycerides, leading to metabolic syndrome. In Wistar rats, a laboratory model of diabetes, 10\\\\% fructose feeding as opposed to 10\\\\% glucose feeding was found to increase blood triglyceride levels by 86\\\\%, whereas the same amount of glucose had no effect on triglycerides. A 2008 study found a substantial risk of incident gout associated with the consumption of fructose or fructose-rich foods. It is suspected that the fructose found in soft drinks (e.g., carbonated beverages) and other sweetened drinks is the primary reason for this increased incidence (T3DB). CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 235 D-Fructose (D(-)-Fructose) is a naturally occurring monosaccharide found in many plants. D-Fructose (D(-)-Fructose) is a naturally occurring monosaccharide found in many plants.
Mannose 6-phosphate
Mannose 6-phosphate, also known as alpha-D-mannose-6-p or man-6-p, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hexose phosphates. These are carbohydrate derivatives containing a hexose substituted by one or more phosphate groups. Mannose 6-phosphate exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Within humans, mannose 6-phosphate participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, mannose 6-phosphate can be converted into fructose 6-phosphate through its interaction with the enzyme mannose-6-phosphate isomerase. In addition, mannose 6-phosphate can be biosynthesized from D-mannose through the action of the enzyme hexokinase-1. Mannose 6-phosphate is a potent competitive inhibitor of pinocytosis of human platelet beta-glucuronidase and it is a necessary component of the recognition marker on the enzyme for pinocytosis by human fibroblasts as well (PMID 908752). In humans, mannose 6-phosphate is involved in fructose intolerance, hereditary. Mannose-6-phosphate is a potent competitive inhibitor of pinocytosis of human platelet beta-glucuronidase and it is a necessary component of the recognition marker on the enzyme for pinocytosis by human fibroblasts as well (PMID 908752). [HMDB] Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST. KEIO_ID M008
beta-D-Glucose 6-phosphate
beta-D-Glucose 6 phosphate (b-G6P) is the beta-anomer of glucose-6-phosphate. There are two anomers of glucose 6 phosphate: the alpha anomer and the beta anomer. Specifically, beta-D-Glucose 6-phosphate is glucose sugar phosphorylated on carbon 6. It is a very common metabolite in cells as the vast majority of glucose entering a cell will become phosphorylated in this way. The primary reason for the immediate phosphorylation of glucose is to prevent diffusion out of the cell. The phosphorylation adds a charged phosphate group so the glucose 6-phosphate cannot easily cross the cell membrane. b-G6P is involved in glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, pentose phosphate, and glycogen and sucrose metabolic pathways. beta-D-Glucose 6 phosphate can be generated through beta-D-fructose phosphate or alpha-D-glucose 6 phosphate (via glucose-6-phosphate isomerase) or beta-D glucose (via hexokinase). It can then be sent off to the pentose phosphate pathway which generates the useful cofactor NADPH as well as ribulose 5-phosphate, a carbon source for the synthesis of other molecules. Alternately, if the cell needs energy or carbon skeletons for synthesis then glucose 6-phosphate is targeted for glycolysis. A third route is to have glucose 6 phosphate stored or converted into glycogen, especially if blood glucose levels are high. Beta-d-glucose 6-phosphate, also known as B-D-glucose 6-(dihydrogen phosphoric acid) or 6-O-phosphono-beta-D-glucopyranose, is a member of the class of compounds known as hexose phosphates. Hexose phosphates are carbohydrate derivatives containing a hexose substituted by one or more phosphate groups. Beta-d-glucose 6-phosphate is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Beta-d-glucose 6-phosphate can be found in a number of food items such as sapodilla, hickory nut, atlantic herring, and swede, which makes beta-d-glucose 6-phosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Beta-d-glucose 6-phosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, beta-d-glucose 6-phosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include glycolysis, glycogenosis, type IC, glycogenosis, type IB, and trehalose degradation. Beta-d-glucose 6-phosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, warburg effect, fanconi-bickel syndrome, and transaldolase deficiency.
Beta-D-Fructose 6-phosphate
Beta-D-Fructose 6 phosphate (b-F6P) is the beta-anomer of fructose-6-phosphate. There are two anomers of fructose 6 phosphate, the alpha anomer and the beta anomer. Specifically, beta-D-fructose 6-phosphate is fructose sugar phosphorylated on carbon 6. Beta-D-Fructose 6-phosphate is a substrate for Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, Pyruvate kinase (isozymes R/L), Hexokinase (type I), Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase A, L-lactate dehydrogenase B chain, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (liver) and Transaldolase. [HMDB] Beta-D-Fructose 6 phosphate (b-F6P) is the beta-anomer of fructose-6-phosphate. There are two anomers of fructose 6 phosphate, the alpha anomer and the beta anomer. Specifically, beta-D-fructose 6-phosphate is fructose sugar phosphorylated on carbon 6. Beta-D-Fructose 6-phosphate is a substrate for Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, Pyruvate kinase (isozymes R/L), Hexokinase (type I), Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase A, L-lactate dehydrogenase B chain, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (liver) and Transaldolase.
Hydrogen Ion
Hydrogen ion, also known as proton or h+, is a member of the class of compounds known as other non-metal hydrides. Other non-metal hydrides are inorganic compounds in which the heaviest atom bonded to a hydrogen atom is belongs to the class of other non-metals. Hydrogen ion can be found in a number of food items such as lowbush blueberry, groundcherry, parsley, and tarragon, which makes hydrogen ion a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Hydrogen ion exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, hydrogen ion is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(i-13:0/a-25:0/a-21:0/i-15:0), cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(a-13:0/a-17:0/i-13:0/a-25:0), cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(i-12:0/i-13:0/a-17:0/a-15:0), and cardiolipin biosynthesis CL(16:1(9Z)/22:5(4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z)/18:1(11Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)). Hydrogen ion is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(20:3(8Z,11Z,14Z)/22:6(4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(18:2(9Z,12Z)/20:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)/18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)), and de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(24:0/20:5(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z)/24:0). A hydrogen ion is created when a hydrogen atom loses or gains an electron. A positively charged hydrogen ion (or proton) can readily combine with other particles and therefore is only seen isolated when it is in a gaseous state or a nearly particle-free space. Due to its extremely high charge density of approximately 2×1010 times that of a sodium ion, the bare hydrogen ion cannot exist freely in solution as it readily hydrates, i.e., bonds quickly. The hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions . Hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions. Under aqueous conditions found in biochemistry, hydrogen ions exist as the hydrated form hydronium, H3O+, but these are often still referred to as hydrogen ions or even protons by biochemists. [Wikipedia])
D-Mannose
D-Mannose in its six-membered ring form. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS D-Mannose is a carbohydrate, which plays an important role in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of specific proteins. D-Mannose is a carbohydrate, which plays an important role in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of specific proteins.
Uridine-diphosphate
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D-Mannose 1-phosphate
A mannose phosphate that is D-mannose carrying a phosphate group at position 1.
Diphosphate
In chemistry, the anion, the salts, and the esters of pyrophosphoric acid are called pyrophosphates. The anion is abbreviated PPi and is formed by the hydrolysis of ATP into AMP in cells. This hydrolysis is called pyrophosphorolysis. The pyrophosphate anion has the structure P2O74-, and is an acid anhydride of phosphate. It is unstable in aqueous solution and rapidly hydrolyzes into inorganic phosphate. Pyrophosphate. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=14000-31-8 (retrieved 2024-10-08) (CAS RN: 14000-31-8). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
[({[(2S,3R,4S,5S)-5-(2,4-dioxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidin-1-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methoxy}(hydroxy)phosphoryl)oxy]({[(3S,4R,5R,6S)-3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl]oxy})phosphinic acid
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