Reaction Process: Reactome:R-TGU-156590
Glutathione conjugation related metabolites
find 20 related metabolites which is associated with chemical reaction(pathway) Glutathione conjugation
GSH + H2O ⟶ CysGly + L-Glu
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate, also known as atp or atriphos, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine ribonucleoside triphosphates. Purine ribonucleoside triphosphates are purine ribobucleotides with a triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Adenosine triphosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Adenosine triphosphate can be found in a number of food items such as lichee, alpine sweetvetch, pecan nut, and black mulberry, which makes adenosine triphosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Adenosine triphosphate can be found primarily in blood, cellular cytoplasm, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and saliva, as well as throughout most human tissues. Adenosine triphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, adenosine triphosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis PE(16:0/18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)), carteolol action pathway, phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis PE(20:3(5Z,8Z,11Z)/15:0), and carfentanil action pathway. Adenosine triphosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include lysosomal acid lipase deficiency (wolman disease), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase deficiency 1 (PEPCK1), propionic acidemia, and the oncogenic action of d-2-hydroxyglutarate in hydroxygluaricaciduria. Moreover, adenosine triphosphate is found to be associated with rachialgia, neuroinfection, stroke, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Adenosine triphosphate is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. Adenosine triphosphate is a drug which is used for nutritional supplementation, also for treating dietary shortage or imbalanc. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that participates in many processes. Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. When consumed in metabolic processes, it converts to either the di- or monophosphates, respectively ADP and AMP. Other processes regenerate ATP such that the human body recycles its own body weight equivalent in ATP each day. It is also a precursor to DNA and RNA . ATP is able to store and transport chemical energy within cells. ATP also plays an important role in the synthesis of nucleic acids. ATP can be produced by various cellular processes, most typically in mitochondria by oxidative phosphorylation under the catalytic influence of ATP synthase. The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1 mole. The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 200 to 300 moles of ATP daily. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 2000 to 3000 times during a single day. ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption must closely follow its synthesis (DrugBank). Metabolism of organophosphates occurs principally by oxidation, by hydrolysis via esterases and by reaction with glutathione. Demethylation and glucuronidation may also occur. Oxidation of organophosphorus pesticides may result in moderately toxic products. In general, phosphorothioates are not directly toxic but require oxidative metabolism to the proximal toxin. The glutathione transferase reactions produce products that are, in most cases, of low toxicity. Paraoxonase (PON1) is a key enzyme in the metabolism of organophosphates. PON1 can inactivate some organophosphates through hydrolysis. PON1 hydrolyzes the active metabolites in several organophosphates insecticides as well as, nerve agents such as soman, sarin, and VX. The presence of PON1 polymorphisms causes there to be different enzyme levels and catalytic efficiency of this esterase, which in turn suggests that different individuals may be more susceptible to the toxic effect of organophosphate exposure (T3DB). ATP is an adenosine 5-phosphate in which the 5-phosphate is a triphosphate group. It is involved in the transportation of chemical energy during metabolic pathways. It has a role as a nutraceutical, a micronutrient, a fundamental metabolite and a cofactor. It is an adenosine 5-phosphate and a purine ribonucleoside 5-triphosphate. It is a conjugate acid of an ATP(3-). An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter. Adenosine triphosphate is a metabolite found in or produced by Escherichia coli (strain K12, MG1655). Adenosine-5-triphosphate is a natural product found in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Arabidopsis thaliana, and other organisms with data available. Adenosine Triphosphate is an adenine nucleotide comprised of three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety, found in all living cells. Adenosine triphosphate is involved in energy production for metabolic processes and RNA synthesis. In addition, this substance acts as a neurotransmitter. In cancer studies, adenosine triphosphate is synthesized to examine its use to decrease weight loss and improve muscle strength. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial. (A3367, A3368, A3369, A3370, A3371). Adenosine triphosphate is a metabolite found in or produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial. (PMID: 15490415, 15129319, 14707763, 14696970, 11157473). 5′-ATP. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=56-65-5 (retrieved 2024-07-01) (CAS RN: 56-65-5). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
Adenosine diphosphate
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), also known as adenosine pyrophosphate (APP), is an important organic compound in metabolism and is essential to the flow of energy in living cells. ADP consists of three important structural components: a sugar backbone attached to adenine and two phosphate groups bonded to the 5 carbon atom of ribose. The diphosphate group of ADP is attached to the 5’ carbon of the sugar backbone, while the adenine attaches to the 1’ carbon. ADP belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside diphosphates. These are purine ribobucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleotide adenine. Adenosine diphosphate is a nucleotide. ADP exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, ADP is involved in d4-gdi signaling pathway. ADP is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. ADP is converted back to ATP by ATP synthases. ADP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. Adenosine diphosphate, abbreviated ADP, is a nucleotide. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleotide adenine. ADP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. 5′-ADP. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=58-64-0 (retrieved 2024-07-01) (CAS RN: 58-64-0). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). Adenosine 5'-diphosphate (Adenosine diphosphate) is a nucleoside diphosphate. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate induces human platelet aggregation and inhibits stimulated adenylate cyclase by an action at P2T-purinoceptors. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate (Adenosine diphosphate) is a nucleoside diphosphate. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate induces human platelet aggregation and inhibits stimulated adenylate cyclase by an action at P2T-purinoceptors.
Cysteinylglycine
Cysteinylglycine is a naturally occurring dipeptide. It is derived from the breakdown of glutathione (a tripeptide). In plasma, cysteinylglycine is in a reduced, oxidized and protein-bound form (aminothiol) and interact via redox and disulphide exchange reactions, in a dynamic system referred to as redox thiol status. (PMID 8642471) Spermatozoa of sub fertile men contain significantly higher thiol concentrations as compared with those of fertile men. The detrimental effect on embryo quality of a high homocysteine (Hcy, another member of the thiol group) concentration in the ejaculate and in follicular fluid is intriguing and may suggest that Hcy is inversely associated with fertility outcome. (PMID 16556671) Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease which involves the synovial membrane of multiple diarthroidal joints causing damage to cartilage and bones. The damage process seems to be related to an overproduction of oxygen reactive species inducing an oxidative perturbation with an increase in some oxidized forms (disulfides and protein mixed disulfides) and a decrease in free thiols. (PMID 15895891) Imipenem (thienamycin formamidine), is a broad-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic, always used in combination with cilastatin in order to avoid the premature breakdown of imipenem by renal tubular dipeptidase. As this dipeptidase also hydrolyzes the glutathione metabolite cysteinylglycine, the therapeutic association of imipenem and cilastatin causes plasma levels of cysteinylglycine to increase significantly, while cysteine levels are decreased and homocysteine levels are unaffected. Therefore, antibiotic treatment using imipenem-cilastatin induces important metabolic changes that should not remain unrecognized. (PMID 15843241) [HMDB]. Cysteinylglycine is found in many foods, some of which are chinese cabbage, wax apple, garden tomato (variety), and japanese pumpkin. Cysteinylglycine is a naturally occurring dipeptide composed of cysteine and glycine. It is derived from the breakdown of glutathione (a tripeptide). In plasma, cysteinylglycine is in a reduced, oxidized, and protein-bound form (aminothiol) and interacts via redox and disulphide exchange reactions in a dynamic system referred to as redox thiol status (PMID: 8642471). Spermatozoa of sub-fertile men contain significantly higher thiol concentrations as compared with those of fertile men. The detrimental effect on embryo quality of a high homocysteine (Hcy) concentration in the ejaculate and in the follicular fluid is intriguing and may suggest that Hcy is inversely associated with fertility outcome (PMID: 16556671). Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease which involves the synovial membrane of multiple diarthroidal joints causing damage to cartilage and bones. The damage process seems to be related to an overproduction of oxygen reactive species inducing an oxidative perturbation with an increase in some oxidized forms (disulfides and protein mixed disulfides) and a decrease in free thiols (PMID: 15895891). Imipenem (thienamycin formamidine) is a broad-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic, always used in combination with cilastatin in order to avoid the premature breakdown of imipenem by renal tubular dipeptidase. As this dipeptidase also hydrolyzes the glutathione metabolite cysteinylglycine, the therapeutic association of imipenem and cilastatin causes plasma levels of cysteinylglycine to increase significantly, while cysteine levels are decreased and homocysteine levels are unaffected. Therefore, antibiotic treatment using imipenem-cilastatin induces important metabolic changes that should not remain unrecognized (PMID: 15843241). L-Cysteinylglycine. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=19246-18-5 (retrieved 2024-07-02) (CAS RN: 19246-18-5). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
NADPH is the reduced form of NADP+, and NADP+ is the oxidized form of NADPH. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) is a coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5-phosphate (NMN) coupled with a pyrophosphate linkage to 5-phosphate adenosine 2,5-bisphosphate. NADP serves as an electron carrier in a number of reactions, being alternately oxidized (NADP+) and reduced (NADPH). NADP is formed through the addition of a phosphate group to the 2 position of the adenosyl nucleotide through an ester linkage (Dorland, 27th ed). This extra phosphate is added by the enzyme NAD+ kinase and removed via NADP+ phosphatase. NADP is also known as TPN (triphosphopyridine nucleotide) and it is an important cofactor used in anabolic reactions in all forms of cellular life. Examples include the Calvin cycle, cholesterol synthesis, fatty acid elongation, and nucleic acid synthesis (Wikipedia). Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. A coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5-phosphate (NMN) coupled by pyrophosphate linkage to the 5-phosphate adenosine 2,5-bisphosphate. It serves as an electron carrier in a number of reactions, being alternately oxidized (NADP+) and reduced (NADPH). (Dorland, 27th ed.) [HMDB]. NADPH is found in many foods, some of which are american pokeweed, rice, ginseng, and ostrich fern. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS
Pyroglutamic acid
Pyroglutamic acid (5-oxoproline) is a cyclized derivative of L-glutamic acid. It is an uncommon amino acid derivative in which the free amino group of glutamic acid cyclizes to form a lactam. It is formed nonenzymatically from glutamate, glutamine, and gamma-glutamylated peptides, but it can also be produced by the action of gamma-glutamylcyclotransferase on an L-amino acid. Elevated blood levels may be associated with problems of glutamine or glutathione metabolism. This compound is found in substantial amounts in brain tissue and other tissues in bound form, especially skin. It is also present in plant tissues. It is sold, over the counter, as a "smart drug" for improving blood circulation in the brain. Pyroglutamate in the urine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese. When present in sufficiently high levels, pyroglutamic acid can act as an acidogen and a metabotoxin. An acidogen is an acidic compound that induces acidosis, which has multiple adverse effects on many organ systems. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of pyroglutamic acid are associated with at least five inborn errors of metabolism including 5-oxoprolinuria, 5-oxoprolinase deficiency, glutathione synthetase deficiency, hawkinsinuria, and propionic acidemia. Pyroglutamic acid is an organic acid. Abnormally high levels of organic acids in the blood (organic acidemia), urine (organic aciduria), the brain, and other tissues lead to general metabolic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart, liver, and kidney abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of the untreated IEMs mentioned above. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. In adults, acidosis or acidemia is characterized by headaches, confusion, feeling tired, tremors, sleepiness, and seizures. It has been shown that pyroglutamic acid releases GABA from the cerebral cortex and displays anti-anxiety effects in a simple approach-avoidance conflict situation in the rat. In clinical pharmacology experiments, pyroglutamic acid significantly shortens the plasma half-life of ethanol during acute intoxication. Found in vegetables, fruits and molasses. A cyclized derivative of L-glutamic acid. It is an uncommon amino acid derivative in which the free amino group of glutamic acid cyclizes to form a lactam. Pyroglutamate in the urine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese C78276 - Agent Affecting Digestive System or Metabolism > C29703 - Antilipidemic Agent
Glutathione
Glutathione is a compound synthesized from cysteine, perhaps the most important member of the bodys toxic waste disposal team. Like cysteine, glutathione contains the crucial thiol (-SH) group that makes it an effective antioxidant. There are virtually no living organisms on this planet-animal or plant whose cells dont contain some glutathione. Scientists have speculated that glutathione was essential to the very development of life on earth. glutathione has many roles; in none does it act alone. It is a coenzyme in various enzymatic reactions. The most important of these are redox reactions, in which the thiol grouping on the cysteine portion of cell membranes protects against peroxidation; and conjugation reactions, in which glutathione (especially in the liver) binds with toxic chemicals in order to detoxify them. glutathione is also important in red and white blood cell formation and throughout the immune system. glutathiones clinical uses include the prevention of oxygen toxicity in hyperbaric oxygen therapy, treatment of lead and other heavy metal poisoning, lowering of the toxicity of chemotherapy and radiation in cancer treatments, and reversal of cataracts. (http://www.dcnutrition.com/AminoAcids/) glutathione participates in leukotriene synthesis and is a cofactor for the enzyme glutathione peroxidase. It is also important as a hydrophilic molecule that is added to lipophilic toxins and waste in the liver during biotransformation before they can become part of the bile. glutathione is also needed for the detoxification of methylglyoxal, a toxin produced as a by-product of metabolism. This detoxification reaction is carried out by the glyoxalase system. Glyoxalase I (EC 4.4.1.5) catalyzes the conversion of methylglyoxal and reduced glutathione to S-D-Lactoyl-glutathione. Glyoxalase II (EC 3.1.2.6) catalyzes the hydrolysis of S-D-Lactoyl-glutathione to glutathione and D-lactate. GSH is known as a substrate in both conjugation reactions and reduction reactions, catalyzed by glutathione S-transferase enzymes in cytosol, microsomes, and mitochondria. However, it is also capable of participating in non-enzymatic conjugation with some chemicals, as in the case of n-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI), the reactive cytochrome P450-reactive metabolite formed by acetaminophen, that becomes toxic when GSH is depleted by an overdose (of acetaminophen). glutathione in this capacity binds to NAPQI as a suicide substrate and in the process detoxifies it, taking the place of cellular protein thiol groups which would otherwise be covalently modified; when all GSH has been spent, NAPQI begins to react with the cellular proteins, killing the cells in the process. The preferred treatment for an overdose of this painkiller is the administration (usually in atomized form) of N-acetylcysteine, which is used by cells to replace spent GSSG and renew the usable GSH pool. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/glutathione). Glutathione (GSH) - reduced glutathione - is a tripeptide with a gamma peptide linkage between the amine group of cysteine (which is attached by normal peptide linkage to a glycine) and the carboxyl group of the glutamate side-chain. It is an antioxidant, preventing damage to important cellular components caused by reactive oxygen species such as free radicals and peroxides. [Wikipedia]. Glutathione is found in many foods, some of which are cashew nut, epazote, ucuhuba, and canada blueberry. Glutathione. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=70-18-8 (retrieved 2024-07-15) (CAS RN: 70-18-8). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). L-Glutathione reduced (GSH; γ-L-Glutamyl-L-cysteinyl-glycine) is an endogenous antioxidant and is capable of scavenging oxygen-derived free radicals.
gamma-Glutamylcysteine
gamma-Glutamylcysteine is a dipeptide composed of gamma-glutamate and cysteine, and is a proteolytic breakdown product of larger proteins. It belongs to the family of N-acyl-alpha amino acids and derivatives. These are compounds containing an alpha amino acid which bears an acyl group at its terminal nitrogen atom. gamma-Glutamylcysteine is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis. gamma-Glutamylcysteine is a product of enzyme glutamate-cysteine ligase [EC 6.3.2.2] and a substrate of enzyme glutathione synthase [EC 6.3.2.3] in the glutamate metabolism pathway (KEGG). G-Glutamylcysteine is a product of enzyme glutamate-cysteine ligase [EC 6.3.2.2] and a substrate of enzyme glutathione synthase [EC 6.3.2.3] in glutamate metabolism pathway (KEGG). gamma-Glutamyl-cysteine is found in many foods, some of which are cardamom, hyacinth bean, oil palm, and pak choy. Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST. Gamma-glutamylcysteine (γ-Glutamylcysteine), a dipeptide containing cysteine and glutamic acid, is a precursor to glutathione (GSH). Gamma-glutamylcysteine is a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase (GPx) to increase GSH levels[1].
NADP+
[Spectral] NADP+ (exact mass = 743.07545) and NAD+ (exact mass = 663.10912) were not completely separated on HPLC under the present analytical conditions as described in AC$XXX. Additionally some of the peaks in this data contains dimers and other unidentified ions. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS
1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene
Dinitrochlorobenzene, also known as 4-chloro-1,3-dinitrobenzene or cdnb, is a member of the class of compounds known as nitrobenzenes. Nitrobenzenes are compounds containing a nitrobenzene moiety, which consists of a benzene ring with a carbon bearing a nitro group. Dinitrochlorobenzene is practically insoluble (in water) and an extremely weak acidic compound (based on its pKa). Dinitrochlorobenzene can be found in a number of food items such as black radish, american butterfish, hedge mustard, and other cereal product, which makes dinitrochlorobenzene a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Dinitrochlorobenzene is produced commercially by the nitration of p-nitrochlorobenzene with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. Other methods afford the compound less efficiently include the chlorination of dinitrobenzene, nitration of o-nitrochlorobenzene and the dinitration of chlorobenzene . D019995 - Laboratory Chemicals > D007202 - Indicators and Reagents C308 - Immunotherapeutic Agent > C2139 - Immunostimulant CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 41 D009676 - Noxae > D007509 - Irritants
Water
Water is a chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life. It appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities, though it is actually slightly blue in color. It covers 71\\% of Earths surface. Current estimates suggest that there are 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (330 million m3) of it available on Earth, and it exists in many forms. It appears mostly in the oceans (saltwater) and polar ice caps, but it is also present as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, lakes, and sea ice. Water in these bodies perpetually moves through a cycle of evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea. Clean water is essential to human life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply. From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the bodys solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Water is thus essential and central to these metabolic processes. Water is also central to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the suns energy to split off waters hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the suns energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration). Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH-) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7. Stomach acid (HCl) is useful to digestion. However, its corrosive effect on the esophagus during reflux can temporarily be neutralized by ingestion of a base such as aluminum hydroxide to produce the neutral molecules water and the salt aluminum chloride. Human biochemistry that involves enzymes usually performs optimally around a biologically neutral pH of 7.4. (Wikipedia). Water, also known as purified water or dihydrogen oxide, is a member of the class of compounds known as homogeneous other non-metal compounds. Homogeneous other non-metal compounds are inorganic non-metallic compounds in which the largest atom belongs to the class of other nonmetals. Water can be found in a number of food items such as caraway, oxheart cabbage, alaska wild rhubarb, and japanese walnut, which makes water a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Water can be found primarily in most biofluids, including ascites Fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and lymph, as well as throughout all human tissues. Water exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, water is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include cardiolipin biosynthesis CL(20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/18:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/18:2(9Z,12Z)), cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(i-13:0/i-15:0/i-20:0/i-24:0), cardiolipin biosynthesis CL(18:0/18:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)), and cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(a-13:0/i-18:0/i-13:0/i-19:0). Water is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(i-21:0/i-13:0/21:0), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(22:0/20:0/i-20:0), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(a-21:0/i-20:0/i-14:0), and de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(i-21:0/a-17:0/i-12:0). Water is a drug which is used for diluting or dissolving drugs for intravenous, intramuscular or subcutaneous injection, according to instructions of the manufacturer of the drug to be administered [fda label]. Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70\\% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil and natural gas) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances; as such it is widely used in industrial processes, and in cooking and washing. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, and diving .
Formic acid
Formic acid is the simplest carboxylic acid. Formate is an intermediate in normal metabolism. It takes part in the metabolism of one-carbon compounds and its carbon may appear in methyl groups undergoing transmethylation. It is eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide. Formate is typically produced as a byproduct in the production of acetate. It is responsible for both metabolic acidosis and disrupting mitochondrial electron transport and energy production by inhibiting cytochrome oxidase activity, the terminal electron acceptor of the electron transport chain. Cell death from cytochrome oxidase inhibition by formate is believed to result partly from depletion of ATP, reducing energy concentrations so that essential cell functions cannot be maintained. Furthermore, inhibition of cytochrome oxidase by formate may also cause cell death by increased production of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) secondary to the blockade of the electron transport chain. In nature, formic acid is found in the stings and bites of many insects of the order Hymenoptera, including bees and ants. The principal use of formic acid is as a preservative and antibacterial agent in livestock feed. When sprayed on fresh hay or other silage, it arrests certain decay processes and causes the feed to retain its nutritive value longer. Urinary formate is produced by Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Enterobacter, Acinetobacter, Proteus mirabilis, Citrobacter frundii, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus group B, Staphylococcus saprophyticus (PMID: 22292465). It is used as a flavouring adjunct, an animal feed additive, a brewing antiseptic and as a food preservative
S-Formylglutathione
S-Formylglutathione, also known as L-gamma-glutamyl-S-formyl-L-cysteinylglycine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as oligopeptides. These are organic compounds containing a sequence of three to ten alpha-amino acids joined by peptide bonds. S-Formylglutathione is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). S-Formylglutathione exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. Outside of the human body, S-formylglutathione has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as sweet marjorams, muscadine grapes, amaranths, lemon verbena, and garden tomato. This could make S-formylglutathione a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. S-Formylglutathione is formed from the oxidation of S-hydroxymethylglutathione by the enzyme formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FDH; EC 1.2.1.1) in the presence of NAD (PMID: 2806555). S-Formylglutathione is formed from the oxidation of S-hydroxymethylglutathione by the enzyme formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FDH; EC 1.2.1.1) in the presence of NAD (PubMed ID 2806555) [HMDB]. S-Formylglutathione is found in many foods, some of which are horseradish tree, wild carrot, japanese walnut, and red beetroot.
1-(s-glutathionyl)-2,4-dinitrobenzene
1-(s-glutathionyl)-2,4-dinitrobenzene, also known as Dinitrophenyl-S-glutathione or GS-DNP, is classified as a member of the Oligopeptides. Oligopeptides are organic compounds containing a sequence of between three and ten alpha-amino acids joined by peptide bonds. 1-(s-glutathionyl)-2,4-dinitrobenzene is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
hydrochloric acid
B - Blood and blood forming organs > B05 - Blood substitutes and perfusion solutions > B05X - I.v. solution additives > B05XA - Electrolyte solutions A - Alimentary tract and metabolism > A09 - Digestives, incl. enzymes > A09A - Digestives, incl. enzymes > A09AB - Acid preparations
Benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dione
An o-quinone resulting from the formal oxidation of both of the hydroxy groups of benzo[a]pyrene-cis-7,8-dihydrodiol. Benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dione is a metabolite of the widespread carcinogen benzo[a]pyrene.
L-glutamate(1-)
An alpha-amino-acid anion that is the conjugate base of L-glutamic acid, having anionic carboxy groups and a cationic amino group
