Reaction Process: PathBank:SMP0000406
Morphine Action Pathway related metabolites
find 12 related metabolites which is associated with chemical reaction(pathway) Morphine Action Pathway
Morphine ⟶ Normorphine
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate, also known as atp or atriphos, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine ribonucleoside triphosphates. Purine ribonucleoside triphosphates are purine ribobucleotides with a triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Adenosine triphosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Adenosine triphosphate can be found in a number of food items such as lichee, alpine sweetvetch, pecan nut, and black mulberry, which makes adenosine triphosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Adenosine triphosphate can be found primarily in blood, cellular cytoplasm, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and saliva, as well as throughout most human tissues. Adenosine triphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, adenosine triphosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis PE(16:0/18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)), carteolol action pathway, phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis PE(20:3(5Z,8Z,11Z)/15:0), and carfentanil action pathway. Adenosine triphosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include lysosomal acid lipase deficiency (wolman disease), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase deficiency 1 (PEPCK1), propionic acidemia, and the oncogenic action of d-2-hydroxyglutarate in hydroxygluaricaciduria. Moreover, adenosine triphosphate is found to be associated with rachialgia, neuroinfection, stroke, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Adenosine triphosphate is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. Adenosine triphosphate is a drug which is used for nutritional supplementation, also for treating dietary shortage or imbalanc. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that participates in many processes. Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. When consumed in metabolic processes, it converts to either the di- or monophosphates, respectively ADP and AMP. Other processes regenerate ATP such that the human body recycles its own body weight equivalent in ATP each day. It is also a precursor to DNA and RNA . ATP is able to store and transport chemical energy within cells. ATP also plays an important role in the synthesis of nucleic acids. ATP can be produced by various cellular processes, most typically in mitochondria by oxidative phosphorylation under the catalytic influence of ATP synthase. The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1 mole. The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 200 to 300 moles of ATP daily. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 2000 to 3000 times during a single day. ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption must closely follow its synthesis (DrugBank). Metabolism of organophosphates occurs principally by oxidation, by hydrolysis via esterases and by reaction with glutathione. Demethylation and glucuronidation may also occur. Oxidation of organophosphorus pesticides may result in moderately toxic products. In general, phosphorothioates are not directly toxic but require oxidative metabolism to the proximal toxin. The glutathione transferase reactions produce products that are, in most cases, of low toxicity. Paraoxonase (PON1) is a key enzyme in the metabolism of organophosphates. PON1 can inactivate some organophosphates through hydrolysis. PON1 hydrolyzes the active metabolites in several organophosphates insecticides as well as, nerve agents such as soman, sarin, and VX. The presence of PON1 polymorphisms causes there to be different enzyme levels and catalytic efficiency of this esterase, which in turn suggests that different individuals may be more susceptible to the toxic effect of organophosphate exposure (T3DB). ATP is an adenosine 5-phosphate in which the 5-phosphate is a triphosphate group. It is involved in the transportation of chemical energy during metabolic pathways. It has a role as a nutraceutical, a micronutrient, a fundamental metabolite and a cofactor. It is an adenosine 5-phosphate and a purine ribonucleoside 5-triphosphate. It is a conjugate acid of an ATP(3-). An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter. Adenosine triphosphate is a metabolite found in or produced by Escherichia coli (strain K12, MG1655). Adenosine-5-triphosphate is a natural product found in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Arabidopsis thaliana, and other organisms with data available. Adenosine Triphosphate is an adenine nucleotide comprised of three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety, found in all living cells. Adenosine triphosphate is involved in energy production for metabolic processes and RNA synthesis. In addition, this substance acts as a neurotransmitter. In cancer studies, adenosine triphosphate is synthesized to examine its use to decrease weight loss and improve muscle strength. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial. (A3367, A3368, A3369, A3370, A3371). Adenosine triphosphate is a metabolite found in or produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial. (PMID: 15490415, 15129319, 14707763, 14696970, 11157473). 5′-ATP. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=56-65-5 (retrieved 2024-07-01) (CAS RN: 56-65-5). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
Adenosine diphosphate
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), also known as adenosine pyrophosphate (APP), is an important organic compound in metabolism and is essential to the flow of energy in living cells. ADP consists of three important structural components: a sugar backbone attached to adenine and two phosphate groups bonded to the 5 carbon atom of ribose. The diphosphate group of ADP is attached to the 5’ carbon of the sugar backbone, while the adenine attaches to the 1’ carbon. ADP belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside diphosphates. These are purine ribobucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleotide adenine. Adenosine diphosphate is a nucleotide. ADP exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, ADP is involved in d4-gdi signaling pathway. ADP is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. ADP is converted back to ATP by ATP synthases. ADP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. Adenosine diphosphate, abbreviated ADP, is a nucleotide. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleotide adenine. ADP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase adenine. 5′-ADP. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=58-64-0 (retrieved 2024-07-01) (CAS RN: 58-64-0). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). Adenosine 5'-diphosphate (Adenosine diphosphate) is a nucleoside diphosphate. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate induces human platelet aggregation and inhibits stimulated adenylate cyclase by an action at P2T-purinoceptors. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate (Adenosine diphosphate) is a nucleoside diphosphate. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate is the product of ATP dephosphorylation by ATPases. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate induces human platelet aggregation and inhibits stimulated adenylate cyclase by an action at P2T-purinoceptors.
Morphine-3-glucuronide
Morphine-3-glucuronide belongs to the family of Morphinans. These are polycyclic compounds with a four-ring skeleton with three condensed six-member rings forming a partially hydrogenated phenanthrene moiety, one of which is aromatic while the two others are alicyclic. D002492 - Central Nervous System Depressants > D009294 - Narcotics > D053610 - Opiate Alkaloids D002491 - Central Nervous System Agents > D000697 - Central Nervous System Stimulants
Morphine
C17H19NO3 (285.13648639999997)
Morphine, also known as (-)-morphine or morphine sulfate, is a member of the class of compounds known as morphinans. Morphinans are polycyclic compounds with a four-ring skeleton with three condensed six-member rings forming a partially hydrogenated phenanthrene moiety, one of which is aromatic while the two others are alicyclic. Morphine is soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Morphine can be synthesized from morphinan. Morphine is also a parent compound for other transformation products, including but not limited to, myrophine, heroin, and codeine. Morphine can be found in a number of food items such as nanking cherry, eggplant, millet, and common hazelnut, which makes morphine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Morphine can be found primarily in blood and urine, as well as in human kidney and liver tissues. In humans, morphine is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include heroin action pathway, morphine metabolism pathway, heroin metabolism pathway, and codeine metabolism pathway. Morphine is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. Morphine is a drug which is used for the relief and treatment of severe pain. The primary source of morphine is isolation from poppy straw of the opium poppy. In 2013, an estimated 523 000 kg of morphine were produced. About 45 000 kg were used directly for pain, a four-time increase over the last twenty years. Most use for this purpose was in the developed world. About 70\\% of morphine is used to make other opioids such as hydromorphone, oxymorphone, and heroin. It is a Schedule II drug in the United States, Class A in the United Kingdom, and Schedule I in Canada. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Morphine is sold under many trade names . Primarily hepatic (90\\%), converted to dihydromorphinone and normorphineand is) also converted to morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G) and morphine-6-glucuronide. Virtually all morphine is converted to glucuronide metabolites; only a small fraction (less than 5\\%) of absorbed morphine is demethylated (DrugBank). In the treatment of morphine overdosage, primary attention should be given to the re- establishment of a patent airway and institution of assisted or controlled ventilation. Supportive measures (including oxygen, vasopressors) should be employed in the management of circulatory shock and pulmonary edema accompanying overdose as indicated. Cardiac arrest or arrhythmias may require cardiac massage or defibrillation. The pure opioid antagonists, such as naloxone, are specific antidotes against respiratory depression which results from opioid overdose. Naloxone should be administered intravenously; however, because its duration of action is relatively short, the patient must be carefully monitored until spontaneous respiration is reliably re-established. If the response to naloxone is suboptimal or not sustained, additional naloxone may be administered, as needed, or given by continuous infusion to maintain alertness and respiratory function; however, there is no information available about the cumulative dose of naloxone that may be safely administered (L1712) (T3DB). Morphine is the principal alkaloid in opium and the prototype opiate analgesic and narcotic. In 2017, morphine was the 155th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than four million prescriptions. Morphine is used primarily to treat both acute and chronic severe pain. Its duration of analgesia is about three to seven hours. A large overdose of morphine can cause asphyxia and death by respiratory depression if the person does not receive medical attention immediately. Morphine is naturally produced by several plants (such as the opium poppy) and animals (PMID: 22578954). Morphine was first isolated between 1803 and 1805 by Friedrich Sertürner. Sertürner originally named the substance morphium after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus, as it has a tendency to cause sleep. The primary source of morphine is isolation from poppy straw of the opium poppy. Morphine is also endogenously produced by humans. In the mid 2000s it was found morphine can be synthesized by white blood cells (PMID 22578954). CYP2D6, a cytochrome P450 isoenzyme, catalyzes the biosynthesis of morphine from codeine and dopamine from tyramine. The morphine biosynthetic pathway in humans occurs as follows: L-tyrosine -> para-tyramine or L-DOPA -> dopamine -> (S)-norlaudanosoline -> (S)-reticuline -> 1,2-dehydroretinulinium -> (R)-reticuline -> salutaridine -> salutaridinol -> thebaine -> neopinone -> codeinone -> codeine -> morphine. (S)-Norlaudanosoline (also known as tetrahydropapaveroline) which is an important intermediate in the WBC biosynthesis of morphine can also be synthesized from 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde (DOPAL), a metabolite of L-DOPA and dopamine. Morphine has widespread effects in the central nervous system and on smooth muscle (PMID: 4582903). The precise mechanism of the analgesic action of morphine is not fully known. However, specific CNS opiate receptors have been identified and likely play a role in the induction of analgesic effects. Morphine first acts on the mu-opioid receptors. The mechanism of respiratory depression involves a reduction in the responsiveness of the brain stem respiratory centers to increases in carbon dioxide tension and electrical stimulation. It has been shown that morphine binds to and inhibits GABA inhibitory interneurons. These interneurons normally inhibit the descending pain inhibition pathway. So, without the inhibitory signals, pain modulation can proceed downstream. When the dose of morphine is reduced after long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms such as drowsiness, vomiting, and constipation may also occur (PMID: 23244430). Morphine is only found in easily detectable quantities in individuals that have used or taken this drug. D002491 - Central Nervous System Agents > D002492 - Central Nervous System Depressants > D009294 - Narcotics D002492 - Central Nervous System Depressants > D009294 - Narcotics > D053610 - Opiate Alkaloids C78272 - Agent Affecting Nervous System > C67413 - Opioid Receptor Agonist > C1657 - Opiate N - Nervous system > N02 - Analgesics > N02A - Opioids > N02AA - Natural opium alkaloids relative retention time with respect to 9-anthracene Carboxylic Acid is 0.056 relative retention time with respect to 9-anthracene Carboxylic Acid is 0.054 D018373 - Peripheral Nervous System Agents > D018689 - Sensory System Agents D002491 - Central Nervous System Agents > D000700 - Analgesics CONFIDENCE standard compound; EAWAG_UCHEM_ID 2744 CONFIDENCE standard compound; INTERNAL_ID 1580
Normorphine
Normorphine, also known as desmethylmorphine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as morphinans. These are polycyclic compounds with a four-ring skeleton with three condensed six-member rings forming a partially hydrogenated phenanthrene moiety, one of which is aromatic while the two others are alicyclic. The compound has relatively little opioid activity in its own right, but is a useful intermediate which can be used to produce both opioid antagonists such as nalorphine, and also potent opioid agonists such as N-phenethylnormorphine. Normorphine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Its formation from morphine is catalyzed by the liver enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP2C8. Normorphine is a controlled substance listed under the Single Convention On Narcotic Drugs 1961 and the laws in various states implementing it; for example, in the United States, it is a Schedule I Narcotic controlled substance, with an ACSCN of 9313 and an annual aggregate manufacturing quota of 18 grams in 2014, unchanged from the prior year. Normorphine is an opiate analogue, the N-demethylated derivative of morphine, that was first described in the 1950s when a large group of N-substituted morphine analogues were characterized for activity. D002492 - Central Nervous System Depressants > D009294 - Narcotics > D053610 - Opiate Alkaloids C78272 - Agent Affecting Nervous System > C67413 - Opioid Receptor Agonist
Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid
Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid, also known as udpglucuronate or udp-D-glucuronic acid, is a member of the class of compounds known as pyrimidine nucleotide sugars. Pyrimidine nucleotide sugars are pyrimidine nucleotides bound to a saccharide derivative through the terminal phosphate group. Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid can be synthesized from alpha-D-glucuronic acid. Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid can also be synthesized into UDP-2,3-diacetamido-2,3-dideoxy-alpha-D-glucuronic acid. Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid can be found in a number of food items such as parsley, chervil, black mulberry, and malabar plum, which makes uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid can be found primarily in human liver tissue. Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include etoposide metabolism pathway, estrone metabolism, tamoxifen action pathway, and androgen and estrogen metabolism. Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include porphyria variegata (PV), glycogenosis, type III. cori disease, debrancher glycogenosis, 17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase III deficiency, and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid is made from UDP-glucose by UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.22) using NAD+ as a cofactor. It is the source of the glucuronosyl group in glucuronosyltransferase reactions . Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid is a nucleoside diphosphate sugar which serves as a source of glucuronic acid for polysaccharide biosynthesis. It may also be epimerized to UDP Iduronic acid, which donates Iduronic acid to polysaccharides. In animals, UDP glucuronic acid is used for formation of many glucosiduronides with various aglycones. The transfer of glucuronic acid from UDP-alpha-D-glucuronic acid onto a terminal galactose residue is done by beta1,3-glucuronosyltransferases, responsible for the completion of the protein-glycosaminoglycan linkage region of proteoglycans and of the HNK1 epitope of glycoproteins and glycolipids. In humans the enzyme galactose-beta-1,3-glucuronosyltransferase I completes the synthesis of the common linker region of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) by transferring glucuronic acid (GlcA) onto the terminal galactose of the glycopeptide primer of proteoglycans. The GAG chains of proteoglycans regulate major biological processes such as cell proliferation and recognition, extracellular matrix deposition, and morphogenesis. (PMID:16815917). Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST.
Morphine-6-glucuronide
Morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G) is a major active metabolite of morphine, and as such is the molecule responsible for much of the pain-relieving effects of morphine (and thus heroin). M6G is formed from morphine by the enzyme UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase-2B7 (UGT2B7). M6G can accumulate to toxic levels in kidney failure. D002492 - Central Nervous System Depressants > D009294 - Narcotics > D053610 - Opiate Alkaloids C78272 - Agent Affecting Nervous System > C67413 - Opioid Receptor Agonist > C1657 - Opiate
Uridine 5'-diphosphate
Uridine 5-diphosphate, also known as 5-UDP, UDP or uridine diphosphoric acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrimidine ribonucleoside diphosphates. These are pyrimidine ribonucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. UDP is also classified as a nucleotide diphosphate. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleoside uridine. UDP consists of a pyrophosphate group, a pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase uracil. UDP exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. In mammals UDP is an important factor in glycogenesis or the formation of glycogen in the liver. Before glucose can be stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles, the enzyme UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase forms a UDP-glucose unit by combining glucose 1-phosphate with uridine triphosphate, cleaving a pyrophosphate ion in the process. Then, the enzyme glycogen synthase combines UDP-glucose units to form a glycogen chain. UDP is also an important extracellular pyrimidine signaling molecule that mediates diverse biological effects via P1 and P2 purinergic receptors, such as the uptake of thymidine and proliferation of gliomas. UDP plays a key role in the function of Uridine 5-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, UGTs) which catalyze the transfer of the glucuronic acid component of UDP-glucuronic acid to a small hydrophobic molecule. UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases are responsible for the process of glucuronidation, a major part of phase II metabolism. The reaction catalyzed by UGT enzymes involves the addition of a glucuronic acid moiety to xenobiotics and is the most important pathway for the human bodys elimination of the most frequently prescribed drugs. It is also the major pathway for foreign chemical (dietary, environmental, pharmaceutical) removal for most drugs, dietary substances, toxins and endogenous substances. UGT is present in humans, other animals, plants, and bacteria. Famously, UGT enzymes are not present in the genus Felis (PMID: 10862526) and this accounts for a number of unusual toxicities in the cat family. Uridine-5-diphosphate, also known as udp or uridine 5-diphosphoric acid, is a member of the class of compounds known as pyrimidine ribonucleoside diphosphates. Pyrimidine ribonucleoside diphosphates are pyrimidine ribonucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Uridine-5-diphosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Uridine-5-diphosphate can be found in a number of food items such as napa cabbage, lichee, tea leaf willow, and parsnip, which makes uridine-5-diphosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Uridine-5-diphosphate can be found primarily in blood, as well as in human placenta, prostate and thyroid gland tissues. Uridine-5-diphosphate exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, uridine-5-diphosphate is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include morphine action pathway, androgen and estrogen metabolism, estrone metabolism, and amino sugar metabolism. Uridine-5-diphosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include 17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase III deficiency, acute intermittent porphyria, beta ureidopropionase deficiency, and g(m2)-gangliosidosis: variant B, tay-sachs disease. Acquisition and generation of the data is financially supported in part by CREST/JST. COVID info from COVID-19 Disease Map, WikiPathways Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS
Water
Water is a chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life. It appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities, though it is actually slightly blue in color. It covers 71\\% of Earths surface. Current estimates suggest that there are 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (330 million m3) of it available on Earth, and it exists in many forms. It appears mostly in the oceans (saltwater) and polar ice caps, but it is also present as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, lakes, and sea ice. Water in these bodies perpetually moves through a cycle of evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea. Clean water is essential to human life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply. From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the bodys solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Water is thus essential and central to these metabolic processes. Water is also central to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the suns energy to split off waters hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the suns energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration). Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH-) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7. Stomach acid (HCl) is useful to digestion. However, its corrosive effect on the esophagus during reflux can temporarily be neutralized by ingestion of a base such as aluminum hydroxide to produce the neutral molecules water and the salt aluminum chloride. Human biochemistry that involves enzymes usually performs optimally around a biologically neutral pH of 7.4. (Wikipedia). Water, also known as purified water or dihydrogen oxide, is a member of the class of compounds known as homogeneous other non-metal compounds. Homogeneous other non-metal compounds are inorganic non-metallic compounds in which the largest atom belongs to the class of other nonmetals. Water can be found in a number of food items such as caraway, oxheart cabbage, alaska wild rhubarb, and japanese walnut, which makes water a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Water can be found primarily in most biofluids, including ascites Fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and lymph, as well as throughout all human tissues. Water exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, water is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include cardiolipin biosynthesis CL(20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/18:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/18:2(9Z,12Z)), cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(i-13:0/i-15:0/i-20:0/i-24:0), cardiolipin biosynthesis CL(18:0/18:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)), and cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(a-13:0/i-18:0/i-13:0/i-19:0). Water is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(i-21:0/i-13:0/21:0), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(22:0/20:0/i-20:0), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(a-21:0/i-20:0/i-14:0), and de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis tg(i-21:0/a-17:0/i-12:0). Water is a drug which is used for diluting or dissolving drugs for intravenous, intramuscular or subcutaneous injection, according to instructions of the manufacturer of the drug to be administered [fda label]. Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70\\% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil and natural gas) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances; as such it is widely used in industrial processes, and in cooking and washing. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, and diving .
Potassium
Potassium is an essential electrolyte. Potassium balance is crucial for regulating the excitability of nerves and muscles and so critical for regulating contractility of cardiac muscle. Although the most important changes seen in the presence of deranged potassium are cardiac, smooth muscle is also affected with increasing muscle weakness, a feature of both hyperkalaemia and hypokalaemia. Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. Potassium (K+) is a positively charged electrolyte, cation, which is present throughout the body in both intracellular and extracellular fluids. The majority of body potassium, >90\\%, are intracellular. It moves freely from intracellular fluid (ICF) to extracellular fluid (ECF) and vice versa when adenosine triphosphate increases the permeability of the cell membrane. It is mainly replaced inside or outside the cells by another cation, sodium (Na+). The movement of potassium into or out of the cells is linked to certain body hormones and also to certain physiological states. Standard laboratory tests measure ECF potassium. Potassium enters the body rapidly during food ingestion. Insulin is produced when a meal is eaten; this causes the temporary movement of potassium from ECF to ICF. Over the ensuing hours, the kidneys excrete the ingested potassium and homeostasis is returned. In the critically ill patient, suffering from hyperkalaemia, this mechanism can be manipulated beneficially by administering high concentration (50\\%) intravenous glucose. Insulin can be added to the glucose, but glucose alone will stimulate insulin production and cause movement of potassium from ECF to ICF. The stimulation of alpha receptors causes increased movement of potassium from ICF to ECF. A noradrenaline infusion can elevate serum potassium levels. An adrenaline infusion, or elevated adrenaline levels, can lower serum potassium levels. Metabolic acidosis causes a rise in extracellular potassium levels. In this situation, excess of hydrogen ions (H+) are exchanged for intracellular potassium ions, probably as a result of the cellular response to a falling blood pH. Metabolic alkalosis causes the opposite effect, with potassium moving into the cells. (PMID: 17883675) [HMDB]. Potassium is found in many foods, some of which are half-highbush blueberry, liquor, grouper, and squashberry. Potassium is an essential electrolyte. Potassium balance is crucial for regulating the excitability of nerves and muscles and so critical for regulating contractility of cardiac muscle. Although the most important changes seen in the presence of deranged potassium are cardiac, smooth muscle is also affected with increasing muscle weakness, a feature of both hyperkalaemia and hypokalaemia. Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. Potassium (K+) is a positively charged electrolyte, cation, which is present throughout the body in both intracellular and extracellular fluids. The majority of body potassium, >90\\%, are intracellular. It moves freely from intracellular fluid (ICF) to extracellular fluid (ECF) and vice versa when adenosine triphosphate increases the permeability of the cell membrane. It is mainly replaced inside or outside the cells by another cation, sodium (Na+). The movement of potassium into or out of the cells is linked to certain body hormones and also to certain physiological states. Standard laboratory tests measure ECF potassium. Potassium enters the body rapidly during food ingestion. Insulin is produced when a meal is eaten; this causes the temporary movement of potassium from ECF to ICF. Over the ensuing hours, the kidneys excrete the ingested potassium and homeostasis is returned. In the critically ill patient, suffering from hyperkalaemia, this mechanism can be manipulated beneficially by administering high concentration (50\\%) intravenous glucose. Insulin can be added to the glucose, but glucose alone will stimulate insulin production and cause movement of potassium from ECF to ICF. The stimulation of alpha receptors causes increased movement of potassium from ICF to ECF. A noradrenaline infusion can elevate serum potassium levels. An adrenaline infusion, or elevated adrenaline levels, can lower serum potassium levels. Metabolic acidosis causes a rise in extracellular potassium levels. In this situation, excess of hydrogen ions (H+) are exchanged for intracellular potassium ions, probably as a result of the cellular response to a falling blood pH. Metabolic alkalosis causes the opposite effect, with potassium moving into the cells. (PMID: 17883675).
Sodium
Na+, also known as sodium ion or na(+), is a member of the class of compounds known as homogeneous alkali metal compounds. Homogeneous alkali metal compounds are inorganic compounds containing only metal atoms,with the largest atom being a alkali metal atom. Na+ can be found in a number of food items such as nanking cherry, opium poppy, alpine sweetvetch, and salmonberry, which makes na+ a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Na+ can be found primarily in blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), saliva, and urine, as well as in human kidney tissue. Na+ exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. In humans, na+ is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include eplerenone action pathway, betaxolol action pathway, furosemide action pathway, and morphine action pathway. Na+ is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include diltiazem action pathway, bendroflumethiazide action pathway, dimethylthiambutene action pathway, and lidocaine (antiarrhythmic) action pathway. NA, N.A., Na, or n/a may refer to: . Sodium ions are necessary for regulation of blood and body fluids, transmission of nerve impulses, heart activity, and certain metabolic functions. Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. Sodium is needed by animals, which maintain high concentrations in their blood and extracellular fluids, but the ion is not needed by plants. The human requirement for sodium in the diet is less than 500 mg per day, which is typically less than a tenth as much as many diets "seasoned to taste." Most people consume far more sodium than is physiologically needed. For certain people with salt-sensitive blood pressure, this extra intake may cause a negative effect on health.