Reaction Process: Reactome:R-GGA-350864

Thyroxine

C15H11I4NO4 (776.6867126)

Thyroxine (3,5,3‚Ä≤,5‚Ä≤-tetraiodothyronine) or T4 is one of two major hormones derived from the thyroid gland, the other being triiodothyronine (T3). The major form of thyroid hormone in the blood is thyroxine (T4), which has a longer half-life than T3. In humans, the ratio of T4 to T3 released into the blood is approximately 14:1. T4 is converted to the active T3 (three to four times more potent than T4) within cells by enzymes known as deiodinases (5‚Ä≤-iodinase). Thyroxine is synthesized via the iodination of tyrosines (monoiodotyrosine) and the coupling of iodotyrosines (diiodotyrosine) in the thyroglobulin. Iodine is critical to the synthesis of thyroxine and other thyroid hormones. Through a reaction with the enzyme thyroperoxidase, iodine is covalently bound to tyrosine residues found in the thyroglobulin protein, forming monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT). Linking two moieties of DIT produces thyroxine. Combining one molecule of MIT and one molecule of DIT produces triiodothyronine. Thyroxine is released from thyroglobulin by proteolysis and secreted into the blood. Iodide is actively absorbed from the bloodstream and concentrated in the thyroid follicles where thyroxine is produced. If there is a deficiency of dietary iodine, the thyroid enlarges in an attempt to trap more iodine, resulting in a condition called goitre. More specifically, the lack of thyroid hormones will lead to decreased negative feedback on the pituitary gland, leading to increased production of thyroid-stimulating hormone, which causes the thyroid to enlarge, leading to goitre. Thyroxine can be peripherally de-iodinated to form triiodothyronine which exerts a broad spectrum of stimulatory effects on cell metabolism. Thyroid hormones function via a well-studied set of nuclear receptors, termed the thyroid hormone receptors. They act on nearly every cell in the body. In particular, thyroid hormones act to increase the basal metabolic rate, affect protein synthesis, help regulate long bone growth (synergy with growth hormone) and neural maturation, and increase the bodys sensitivity to catecholamines (such as adrenaline) by permissiveness. The thyroid hormones are essential to proper development and differentiation of all cells of the human body. These hormones also regulate protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism, affecting how human cells use energetic compounds. They also stimulate vitamin metabolism. Numerous physiological and pathological stimuli influence thyroid hormone synthesis. Levothyroxine, a manufactured form of thyroxine, was the most prescribed medication in the United States with more than 114 million prescriptions. Thyroxine, one of the two major hormones secreted by the thyroid gland (the other is triiodothyronine). Thyroxine’s principal function is to stimulate the consumption of oxygen and thus the metabolism of all cells and tissues in the body. Thyroxine is formed by the molecular addition of iodine to the amino acid tyrosine while the latter is bound to the protein thyroglobulin. Excessive secretion of thyroxine in the body is known as hyperthyroidism, and the deficient secretion of it is called hypothyroidism. Thyroid hormones are any hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, namely triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). They are tyrosine-based hormones that are primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism. T3 and T4 are partially composed of iodine, derived from food.[2] A deficiency of iodine leads to decreased production of T3 and T4, enlarges the thyroid tissue and will cause the disease known as simple goitre.[3] The major form of thyroid hormone in the blood is thyroxine (T4), whose half-life of around one week[4] is longer than that of T3.[5] In humans, the ratio of T4 to T3 released into the blood is approximately 14:1.[6] T4 is converted to the active T3 (three to four times more potent than T4) within cells by deiodinases (5′-deiodinase). These are further processed by decarboxylation and deiodination to produce iodothyronamine (T1a) and thyronamine (T0a). All three isoforms of the deiodinases are selenium-containing enzymes, thus dietary selenium is essential for T3 production. The thyroid hormone is one of the factors responsible for the modulation of energy expenditure. This is achieved through several mechanisms, such as mitochondrial biogenesis, adaptive thermogenesis, etc.[7] American chemist Edward Calvin Kendall was responsible for the isolation of thyroxine in 1915.[8] In 2020, levothyroxine, a manufactured form of thyroxine, was the second most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 98 million prescriptions.[9][10] Levothyroxine is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[11] (-)-Thyroxine. CAS Common Chemistry. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, n.d. https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=7488-70-2 (retrieved 2024-06-28) (CAS RN: 51-48-9). Licensed under the Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). D-Thyroxine (D-T4) is a thyroid hormone that can inhibit TSH secretion. D-Thyroxine can be used for the research of hypercholesterolemia[1][2]. L-Thyroxine (Levothyroxine; T4) is a synthetic hormone for the research of hypothyroidism. DIO enzymes convert biologically active thyroid hormone (Triiodothyronine,T3) from L-Thyroxine (T4)[1].

Iodide

I- (126.904477)

Iodide can function as an antioxidant as it is a reducing species that can detoxify reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. Over three billion years ago, blue-green algae were the most primitive oxygenic photosynthetic organisms and are the ancestors of multicellular eukaryotic algae (1). Algae that contain the highest amount of iodine (1-3 \\% of dry weight) and peroxidase enzymes, were the first living cells to produce poisonous oxygen in the atmosphere. Therefore algal cells required a protective antioxidant action of their molecular components, in which iodides, through peroxidase enzymes, seem to have had this specific role. In fact, iodides are greatly present and available in the sea, where algal phytoplankton, the basis of marine food-chain, acts as a biological accumulator of iodides, selenium, (and n-3 fatty acids) :; Antioxidant biochemical mechanism of iodides, probably one of the most ancient mechanisms of defense from poisonous reactive oxygen species:; An iodide ion is an iodine atom with a -1 charge. Compounds with iodine in formal oxidation state -1 are called iodides. This can include ionic compounds such as caesium iodide or covalent compounds such as phosphorus triiodide. This is the same naming scheme as is seen with chlorides and bromides. The chemical test for an iodide compound is to acidify the aqueous compound by adding some drops of acid, to dispel any carbonate ions present, then adding lead(II) nitrate, yielding a bright yellow precipitate of lead iodide. Most ionic iodides are soluble, with the exception of yellow silver iodide and yellow lead iodide. Aqueous solutions of iodide dissolve iodine better than pure water due to the formation of complex ions: [HMDB]. Iodide is found in many foods, some of which are breakfast cereal, star anise, annual wild rice, and peppermint. Iodide can function as an antioxidant as it is a reducing species that can detoxify reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. Over three billion years ago, blue-green algae were the most primitive oxygenic photosynthetic organisms and are the ancestors of multicellular eukaryotic algae (1). Algae that contain the highest amount of iodine (1-3 \\% of dry weight) and peroxidase enzymes, were the first living cells to produce poisonous oxygen in the atmosphere. Therefore algal cells required a protective antioxidant action of their molecular components, in which iodides, through peroxidase enzymes, seem to have had this specific role. In fact, iodides are greatly present and available in the sea, where algal phytoplankton, the basis of marine food-chain, acts as a biological accumulator of iodides, selenium, (and n-3 fatty acids) :; Antioxidant biochemical mechanism of iodides, probably one of the most ancient mechanisms of defense from poisonous reactive oxygen species:; An iodide ion is an iodine atom with a -1 charge. Compounds with iodine in formal oxidation state -1 are called iodides. This can include ionic compounds such as caesium iodide or covalent compounds such as phosphorus triiodide. This is the same naming scheme as is seen with chlorides and bromides. The chemical test for an iodide compound is to acidify the aqueous compound by adding some drops of acid, to dispel any carbonate ions present, then adding lead(II) nitrate, yielding a bright yellow precipitate of lead iodide. Most ionic iodides are soluble, with the exception of yellow silver iodide and yellow lead iodide. Aqueous solutions of iodide dissolve iodine better than pure water due to the formation of complex ions:. COVID info from PDB, Protein Data Bank Corona-virus Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 SARS-CoV COVID19 SARS2 SARS

Reverse-triiodthyronine

C15H12I3NO4 (650.7900602)

This compound belongs to the family of Phenylpropanoic Acids. These are compounds whose structure contain a benzene ring conjugated to a propanoic acid. D006730 - Hormones, Hormone Substitutes, and Hormone Antagonists > D006728 - Hormones

Hydrogen Ion

H+ (1.0078246)

Hydrogen ion, also known as proton or h+, is a member of the class of compounds known as other non-metal hydrides. Other non-metal hydrides are inorganic compounds in which the heaviest atom bonded to a hydrogen atom is belongs to the class of other non-metals. Hydrogen ion can be found in a number of food items such as lowbush blueberry, groundcherry, parsley, and tarragon, which makes hydrogen ion a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Hydrogen ion exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, hydrogen ion is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(i-13:0/a-25:0/a-21:0/i-15:0), cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(a-13:0/a-17:0/i-13:0/a-25:0), cardiolipin biosynthesis cl(i-12:0/i-13:0/a-17:0/a-15:0), and cardiolipin biosynthesis CL(16:1(9Z)/22:5(4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z)/18:1(11Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)). Hydrogen ion is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(20:3(8Z,11Z,14Z)/22:6(4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)/22:5(7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(18:2(9Z,12Z)/20:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)), de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)/18:4(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)), and de novo triacylglycerol biosynthesis TG(24:0/20:5(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z)/24:0). A hydrogen ion is created when a hydrogen atom loses or gains an electron. A positively charged hydrogen ion (or proton) can readily combine with other particles and therefore is only seen isolated when it is in a gaseous state or a nearly particle-free space. Due to its extremely high charge density of approximately 2×1010 times that of a sodium ion, the bare hydrogen ion cannot exist freely in solution as it readily hydrates, i.e., bonds quickly. The hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions . Hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions. Under aqueous conditions found in biochemistry, hydrogen ions exist as the hydrated form hydronium, H3O+, but these are often still referred to as hydrogen ions or even protons by biochemists. [Wikipedia])

Coenzyme II

C21H25N7O17P3-3 (740.051977)

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NADPH(4-)

C21H26N7O17P3-4 (741.0598016)